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A MODERN 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

REVISED 

WITH PRACTICAL EXERCISES 



BY 

HUBER GRAY BUEHLER 

!l 
HEADMASTER OF THE HOTCHKISS SCHOOL; AUTHOR OF 

"PRACTICAL EXERCISES IN ENGLISH" 



NEW YORK 
NEWSON AND COMPANY 



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Copyright, 1900, by Huber Gray Buehler 

All rights reserved 

Copyright, 1906, by Newson & Company 
Copyright, 1914, by Newson & Company 

1489 



MAR 14 1914 



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CI.A3 6 93.11 



PREFACE 

When "A Modern English Grammar" was published 
in 1900 as "an attempt to present the subject in a man- 
ner prescribed by modern methods of instruction," 
approximately one-third of the book was given to a 
discussion of sentences and their structure, and the 
remaining two-thirds to an examination of the parts 
of speech. This reversal of the customary plan was 
then regarded as something of an innovation, but is 
now generally accepted as pedagogically correct. 

The larger elements of s entence structure are the 
fou ndations of gramma r, and they mus t be learned 
thoroughly before the pupil is ready for the study of 
separate words. They influence both the classification 
and the inflection of the parts of speech. Therefore, 
neither the classification nor the inflection of the parts 
of speech can be effectively studied until these are 
mastered. 

The enthusiastic welcome and wide acceptance of the 
book upon its first appearance encouraged the author 
to preserve and carefully collate all comments and 
criticisms which came to him from the classroom or 
elsewhere, and these have served as an index to point 
out where the text might be most profitably improved 
in the present revision. 

While no change in the general plan of the original 
book has been found necessary, the improvements of 



PREFACE 

detail have been so numerous and so extensive that the 
revised edition may be said to be practically a new book. 

The expository sections, which in some instances were 
unnecessarily long and abstruse, have been shortened 
and simplified wherever it seemed desirable. The 
definitions, after painstaking study, have been entirely 
rewritten. The nomenclature used, except in a few 
instances explained in the foot-notes, is that sug- 
gested in the " Report of the Joint Committee on 
Grammatical Nomenclature," approved and recom- 
mended by the National Educational Association. 

The exercises have been entirely worked over, re- 
graded, and rearranged, and many new exercises have 
been added. Sentences that were too difficult have been 
omitted ; exercises that were too hard have been changed ; 
numerous exercises have been altered in form so as to 
give better pedagogical results; and new exercises of a 
practical character have been inserted where needed. 

Numerous models for oral and written exercises have 
been added as a help to both pupil and teacher. The 
sections on certain subjects like "It" and "There" 
expletive, and transitive and intransitive verbs, which 
were introduced unnecessarily early, have been post- 
poned to later pages. The ambiguity regarding the 
relation of infinitives and participles to the parts of 
speech has been removed. The treatment of phrases 
and clauses has been simplified and expanded. Dis- 
puted points have been either eliminated or fortified 
by references to accepted authorities. Larger type has 
been employed, and a free use made of small type to 
distinguish the less important from the more important. 

iv 



PREFACE 

As explained in the preface to the first edition, the 
inductive method of presentation is employed to lead 
the pupil to o bser ve, compa re and classify the grammati- 
cal facts for himself. 

The fund of knowledge that pupils bring into the 
classroom has also determined the limits which the 
author has set to his work. Many things often elabo- 
rately set forth in text-books may be safely taken for 
granted as already known. To explain them is a vio- 
lation of the pedagogic maxim, " Teach the pupil what 
he does not know." Even the analysis of sentences, 
important as it is, has its limits as a means of instruction 
and training. In going beyond the general analysis 
which brings into relief the logical structure of a complex 
sentence we do not help the pupil, but present him with 
linguistic riddles that make his native tongue offensive 
to him. 

As to inflections and the uses of the various parts of 
speech, these are already known empirically, and the 
bu sines s, of the grammarian is simply to help the pup il 
to systematize his knowledg e and to avoid common 
errors._ Distinctions and classifications, if they are too 
minute or numerous, confuse the mind and loosen its 
grasp of important things. The author has tried to 
make a book that will help teachers to awaken in boys 
and girls what is sometimes called the language sense, 
and strengthen their grasp of their mother tongue. 

The total result is a text-book consistent with itself, 
well graded, easy for the pupil, and thoroughly workable 
for the teacher. The author hopes and believes that 

1 S. S. Laurie: "Lectures on Language and Linguistic Method in the School." 

V 



PREFACE 

those who liked the original book will find the revised 
book greatly improved; and that those who found 
cause for criticism in the first edition will rind the cause 
removed in the revision. 

H. G. B. 
Lakeville, Connecticut, 
February, 19 14. 



CONTENTS 



PAGE 



Introduction i 

PART I 

Sentences and their Structure 

CHAPTER 

I. Of Sentences in General. . . . 15 

II. Of Subject and Predicate 21 

III. Of Simple Subject and Verb 34 

IV. Of Complements of the Verb 45 

V. Of Modifiers 57 

VI. Of Substantive Phrases and Clauses 90 

VII. Of Independent Elements 99 

VIII. Of Sentences as Simple, Complex, and Compound 106 

IX. Of Elliptical Sentences 119 

PART II 

The Parts of Speech 

I. Of the Recognition of the Parts of Speech 125 

II. Of Inflection, Derivation, and Compound Words . 162 

III. Of Nouns 165 

IV. Of Pronouns. 195 

V. Of Adjectives 244 

VI. Of Adverbs 257 

VII. Of Verbs 266 

VIII. Of Prepositions 337 

IX. Of Conjunctions 343 

X. Of Interjections 346 

List of Verbs 347 



INTRODUCTION 

1. Language. Everybody has an instinctive 
desire to tell his thoughts and feelings to others; 
indeed, exchange of ideas is necessary in social 
life. One way of expressing thoughts is to 
make motions with the hands or other parts of 
the body, as children and deaf and dumb per- 
sons do. But the usual and very much better 
way is to make with the tongue and adjoining 
organs certain combinations of sounds which by 
common consent have certain meanings. These 
combinations of tongue-sounds, by which people 
express their thoughts and feelings, form Lan- 
guage (from Latin lingua, "tongue"). Combi- 
nations of sounds that stand for single ideas are 
called Words. These are in turn combined into 
thought groups called Sentences. 

Some knowledge of the history of our language 
is helpful to the study of it as it is to-day. 

2. Why Our Language is Called English. Our 
language is called English because it is the lan- 
guage that has been spoken for more than fif- 
teen hundred years in England, whence it has 
been carried to America and other parts of the 
world by English colonists. 



2 INTRODUCTION 

3. The Early Home of English. But the English 
language did not have its beginning in England. It 
was carried there in 449 A.D. by people who mi- 
grated from the banks of the river Elbe and the 
southwest coasts of the Baltic Sea. These people 
were from three tribes, called Angles, Saxons, and 
Jutes. Of the Jutes who moved to England nearly 




MAP SHOWING THE EARLY HOME OF ENGLISH. 



all trace has been lost. The Angles and the Saxons 
drove the original inhabitants — the Britons — into 
the mountainous parts of the island, and in course 
of time founded the Anglo-Saxon race. They called 
their new country " Angleland," or "England"; 
themselves and their language they called " English/' 
The wonderful way in which the English lan- 
guage has spread over the world is shown by the 



INTRODUCTION 3 

accompanying maps. The preceding map shows 
the early home of English, when it was a mere 
dialect of German, spoken by a few tribes. The 
shaded portions of the map below show the region 
of the world in which English is now used. 



Arctic Ocean tfj^fcj 




Borm»y&Co 1 ,N.T. 

MAP SHOWING THE SPREAD OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



How far English has outstripped other languages 
may be seen from the following table, which shows 
the number of people speaking the principal Euro- 
pean languages in 1890: 

English. 111,100,000 

German 75,200,000 

Russian 75,000,000 

French 51,200,000 

Spanish 42,800,000 

Italian 33,400,000 

Portuguese 13,000,000 



4 INTRODUCTION 

4. Old English Different from Modern English. 

The language carried to England by the Anglo- 
Saxons was so unlike the English of to-day that at 
first glance it seems to be quite a different tongue. 
Here, for example, is the Lord's Prayer in Anglo- 
Saxon, or Old English, with the corresponding 
modern English words printed underneath: 



Faeder ure, 


Jm ]?e 


eart on heofenum 


Father our, 


thou that 


art in heavens 



Si f>in nama gehalgod 
Be thy name hallowed 

To becume thin rice 
Arrive thy kingdom 

GeweorJ?e )?in willa on eor)?an, swa swa on heofenum 
Be-done thy will on earth, so-as in heavens 

Urne daeghwamlican hlaf syle us to daeg 
Our daily loaf give us to-day 

And forgyf us ure gyltas, swa swa we forgif a J? urum gyltendum 
And forgive us our debts, so-as we forgive our debtors 

And ne geliede Jm us on costnunge, ac alys us of yfle 
And not lead thou us into temptation, but loose us of evil 

SoJ?lice. 

Soothly {Amen). 

5. Relation of Old English to Modern English. 

Strange-looking as this Old English is, it is the 
same language as that which we use. The differ- 



INTRODUCTION 5 

ence between it and modern English is no more to 
be wondered at than the difference between a young 
child and the same child when grown to manhood. 

6. How Our Language has Grown. When our 
language was carried to England, it consisted of 
probably not more than two thousand words; now 
it contains more than two hundred thousand — a 
much larger number than any other language. 
These new words have come into the language in 
many interesting ways: 

(1) British Words. When the Anglo-Saxons set- 
tled in England and drove off the Britons, they 
adopted some British words, just as the Americans 
have adopted some Indian words. Of these words, 
adopted from the Britons, examples are: " dun " 
and " down " (meaning " hill "). 








ROMAN WALL IN THE NORTH OF ENGLAND. 

Built by the Romans as a defense against native tribes. 



6 INTRODUCTION 

(2) Latin Words Found in Britain. For several 
hundred years before the arrival of the Anglo- 
Saxons, England had been in the possession of the 
Romans. When the Romans withdrew from the 
island in 410 A.D., they left behind a few Latin 
words, which were adopted by the Anglo-Saxons. 
Examples are: " port " (Latin portus), "mile" 
(Latin milia passuum, "a thousand paces"), and 
" wall " (Latin vallum). 

(3) Missionary Words. About the year 600 A.D. 
Christianity began to be received by the Saxons 
through Roman missionaries; and with the mis- 
sionaries came many new words from the Latin. 
Examples are: "monk" (Latin monachus) and 
"clerk " (Latin clericus). 



ANCIENT DANISH BOAT FOR FOURTEEN PAIRS OF OARS. 

78 feet long, 10 feet broad. Found in a peat bog in Jutland. 

(4) Danish Words. Toward the end of the eighth 
century Norsemen or Danes overran parts of Eng- 



INTRODUCTION 7 

land, and many of their words were adopted by the 
English. Examples are: " sky " and " call." 

(5) Norman-French Words. In 1066 William of 
Normandy conquered England in the great move- 
ment known as the Norman Invasion. The Nor- 
mans, who came from France, spoke Norman- 
French, which was for the most part modified Latin. 
In England they seized the land and all the political 
power, filled all the offices, and made their language 
the language of the court, the law, the schools, and 
the church. We cannot dwell on the particulars of 
the tremendous change in our language which was 
wrought by this Norman Invasion. It is enough to 
say that after three hundred years of contact with 
Norman-French the English language was very 
much richer in vocabulary and softer in sound. Of 
the many hundreds of Norman-French words in 
our language examples are: "battle," "forest," 
" duke," and " peace." 

(6) Words from Latin Books. In the sixteenth 
century, through the influence of what is called the 
Revival of Learning, the study of Latin became 
very popular in England. No one was considered 
well educated unless he could read Latin ; nearly all 
important books were written in Latin; and Latin 
words began to appear in English conversation and 
writing. Since these Latin-English words were 
learned from books, they closely resembled in spell- 
ing the original Latin words. Examples are : " fact " 
(Latin factum), " example " (Latin exemplum), and 
" quiet " (Latin quietus). 



8 INTRODUCTION 

(7) Imported Words. The descendants of the 
Anglo-Saxons have always been great travelers and 
traders; and in their traveling and trading they 
have collected words from all parts of the world. 
Examples are: from Spain, " mosquito"; from 
Italy, " piano"; from Holland, "skate"; from 
Germany, " zinc"; from Africa, " gorilla"; from the 
American Indian, " hammock " and " hominy"; 
from Arabia, "sofa"; from China, "tea"; from 
Portugal, " binnacle" ; from Persia, " bazar" ; from 
Australia, " kangaroo." 

(8) New Words for New Things. New dis- 
coveries and inventions, as they have occurred, have 
given new words to our language. Examples are: 
"photograph " and " telephone." 

7. Proportion of Foreign Words in Modern 
English. The proportion of words in modern Eng- 
lish which have been drawn from the sources just 
described may be roughly represented as follows: 



Old English Word, 



Latin Words 
(including Norman-French) 



Greek Words I Italian, Spanish, Dutch, Hebrew, Arabic, 

Persian, American Indian, etc. 



8. Changes in Our Language. Our language has 
not only grown; it has changed. Old English was 
what is called a highly inflected language. An 



INTRODUCTION 9 

inflected language is one that joins words together in 
sentences by means of " inflections " or changes in 
the words themselves. For example, in Old English 
oxan meant " oxen," oxena meant " of oxen," oxum 
meant " with oxen." Accordingly, instead of saying 
as we do " tongues of oxen," our Anglo-Saxon 
ancestors said " tungan oxena." Traces of these 
word-changes or inflections still remain in our 
language: as, " sing," " sings." 

9. How Changes Came About. The greatest 
changes in our language occurred between noo and 
1500 A.D., that is to say, during the four centuries 
that followed the Norman Conquest. The story of 
the changes is too long to be told here; but some idea 
of how they came about may be gained by noticing 
what happens to-day when a foreigner who has only 
half learned English tries to speak it. He mispro- 
nounces the words and neglects the inflections. In 
somewhat the same way, when the Anglo-Saxons 
and the Norman-French became one people, and 
their languages were fused into modern English, 
sounds were modified and inflections were dropped. 

10. Language Still Subject to Change. Since 
the invention of printing, changes in English have 
not been numerous; for the vast number of printed 
books and papers, and the immense spread of the 
ability to read and write, have given to our language 
a stability of form which it could not have so long 
as it existed chiefly on men's tongues. For example, 



io INTRODUCTION 

the language of the English Bible, which is sixteenth- 
century English, differs comparatively little from the 
English of to-day. But some change is still going on, 




EARLY PRINTING PRESS. 



for modifying influences are always at work. English- 
speaking people in different parts of the world do 
not talk exactly alike; new words are coming in; 
old words are dropping out; the forms and uses of 
other words are changing. An example of this mod- 
ern change is found in the word " whom." The 
" m " in this word is an inflection; and we still say, 
when we wish to speak grammatically, " Whom did 
you see?" But since the " m " is not necessary to 
the meaning, people have long been careless about 
using it, and even good speakers often say, " Who 
did you see?" 1 

1 T. R. Lounsbury: "History of the English Language." 



INTRODUCTION n 

11. Good English. Good English is the English 
used by the best speakers and writers; and the use 
of such English is " only a phase of good manners." 
Bad English, that is, English unlike that which is 
used by well-informed and careful writers, produces 
in the mind of a well-informed reader an impression 
of vulgarity or ignorance similar to that which we 
get from seeing a person eat with his knife. It is 
with language as with clothes and conduct. Persons 
who wish to be classed as cultivated people must 
not only dress and act like cultivated people; they 
must also speak and write like them. A help toward 
this end is the study of grammar. 

12. Grammar. Grammar is an account of the 
relations which words bear to one another when they 
are put together in sentences. An understanding of 
these relations requires some knowledge of the 
nature, the forms, and the history of words, but 
only so far as these bear on the uses of words in 
sentences. The proper starting point of English 
grammar is the sentence. The discussion of words 
considered by themselves belongs to the dictionary. 

13. Uses of Grammar. It is not by grammar, 
however, that we learn to speak or write. Speak- 
ing and writing our mother tongue are habits, 
formed by imitation long, before we acquire that 
knowledge which is the subject-matter of grammar. 
The object of the study of grammar is to learn the uses 
of words in sentences, so that we may test the habits 



12 INTRODUCTION 

of speech which we have already acquired, and make 
them conform to the best models. Incidentally the 
study of grammar affords invaluable mental training. 

14. Grammars Old and New. Among English- 
speaking peoples grammar was first studied as a 
step toward the learning of Latin, and the first 
English grammar was called an " Introduction to 
Lily's Latin Grammar." The author of that first 
English grammar, keeping his eye on Latin rather 
than on English, and making his work conform to 
Latin models, treated English as if it were in all 
important respects like Latin and Greek, with no 
history or laws of its own. As a matter of fact, 
English differs greatly from other languages. In 
structure it is essentially Anglo-Saxon. Yet the 
mistake of the first English grammar was followed 
by succeeding books for nearly four hundred years. 
Now we have learned better, and study our language 
with reference to its own nature and history. 



PART I 

SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 



CHAPTER I 

OF SENTENCES IN GENERAL 

15. Ideas. The word "dog," when heard or 
seen, instantly creates in the mind a mental picture 
of a well-known animal. This mental picture is 
called an Idea. 

The idea may be made more definite by the 
addition of other words: as, "The big dog in Mr. 
Smith's yard" ; but though the idea now has several 
parts, it still remains a single mental picture, ex- 
pressed by a group of related words. 

16. Thoughts. The words " The big dog in Mr. 
Smith's yard" are satisfactory as an expression of a 
mental picture or idea; but as a statement they are 
incomplete, for we at once find ourselves asking, 
" Well, what about that dog?" We are satisfied 
when we hear that " The big dog in Mr. Smith's 
yard barked." 

From the last group of words we get more than a 
single idea. We get, first, the idea of a certain dog, 
and, secondly, we get an idea of what the dog did. 
Of these ideas, the second is an assertion about the 
first. 

Two ideas of this kind — something thought of 
and an assertion about it — together form a complete 
Thought. 

15 



1 6 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

17. Sentences. A group of words expressing a 
complete thought is called a Sentence. 

"The big dog barking in the yard" is not a sen- 
tence, for it contains no assertion, and therefore, it 
does not express a complete thought. "Barking;" 
does not assert. It is merely a descriptive word, 
like "big," helping to fill out the mental picture of 
a certain dog, about which as yet no assertion has been 
made. "Big" shows the size of the dog, "barking" 
shows his occupation, "in the yard" shows his where- 
abouts; what the big dog barking in the yard did, we 
have yet to learn. The thought and the sentence 
become complete if we add an assertion: as, "The 
big dog barking in the yard frightened me" ; or if we 
connect "dog" and "barking" by an asserting word 
like "is" : as, "The big dog is barking in the yard." 

De finition. A sentence is a group of words ex- 
pressing a complete thought. 

Exercise 1 

i. Tell which of the following groups of words are 
Sentences. Make Sentences with the other groups by 
adding appropriate asserting words: 

i. The man in the moon. 

Model for Oral Exercise. "The man in the moon" 
is not a sentence because it does not express a complete 
thought. "The man in the moon has a broad face" is a 
sentence, the thought being completed by the assertion 
"has a broad face." 

Model for Written Exercise. Not a sentence. "The 
man in the moon has a broad face." 



OF SENTENCES IN GENERAL 17 

2. The man in the moon came down too soon. 

3. The boy in blue. 

4. The boy reciting his lesson. 

5. The boy in blue reciting his lesson. 

6. The boy reciting his lesson is my brother. 

7. His attempt to catch the ball. 

8. A primrose by the river's brim. 

9. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 

10. The children playing in the street. 

11. Vessels carrying coal. 

12. The apples hanging on the tree. 

13. Wounds made by words are hard to heal. 

14. Charles, seeing a crowd in the street. 

15. The girl at the spring, having rilled her pitcher. 

16. To play football well. 

Exercise 2 

i. Write five groups of related words, not Sentences, 
about things in the schoolroom, and show that they 
are not Sentences. 

2. Write five Sentences about things in the school- 
room, and show that they are Sentences. 

18. Sentences Classified. Examine the sentences 
in the following conversation: 

Donald: I found these big apples in grandfather's barn. 
Dorothy: Show us where you got them. 
Jack: Are there any more there? 
Helen: Aren't they beauties! 

You observe that Donald's thought is an asser- 
tion or statement; Dorothy's thought is a command 
or entreaty; Jack's thought is a question; Helen's 



1 8 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

thought seems at first glance to be a question about 
the beauty of the apples; but this cannot be, since 
she already knows that the apples are beauties. 

She is merely expressing her strong feeling of delight 
by an exclamation, which has the form of a question. 

Sentences that assert or declare are called Declara- 
tive Sentences. 

Sentences that ask questions are called Inter- 
rogative Sentences. 

Sentences that command or entreat are commonly 
called Imperative Sentences. 1 

When declarative, interrogative, and imperative 
sentences are used as exclamations expressing strong 
feeling, they are called Exclamatory Sentences. 

Sentences not exclamatory are called Non-Exclamatory. 
All sentences are either Affirmative or Negative: as, 

(Affirmative declarative) "She sings"; (Negative declarative) 
"She does not sing"; (Affirmative interrogative) "Does she 
sing?" (Negative interrogative) "Why doesn't she sing?" 

Exercise 3 

Classify each Sentence in the following selections: 

i. We all do fade as a leaf. 

2. Fear God/ Honor the king. 

3. The king is dead! Long live the king! 

4. A living dog is better than a dead lion. 

5. Can a man take fire in his bosom, and his clothes not 
be burned? 



x The Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature recommends 
that the term Imperative Sentences be dropped, and that such sentences 
be included in Declarative or Interrogative as the case may be. 



OF SENTENCES IN GENERAL 19 

6. a. Half a league, half a league, 

Half a league onward, 
All in the valley of death 
Rode the Six Hundred. 

b. "Forward the Light Brigade! 

c. Charge for the guns!" he said. 

d. Into the valley of death 
Rode the Six Hundred. 
* # * * * 

e. When can their glory fade ! 

f. O the wild charge they made! 

g. All the world wonder 'd. 

h. Honor the charge they made! 

i. Honor the Light Brigade, 

Noble Six Hundred! 

19. Punctuation of Complete Sentences. In 
writing, the first word of every sentence begins with 
a capital letter. 

The end of a declarative or an imperative sentence 
is marked by a period (:). The end of an inter- 
rogative sentence is marked by an interrogation 
point (?). But if the sentence is exclamatory be- 
cause of the strong feeling it expresses, an ex- 
clamation point (!) is used instead of the period or 
the interrogation point. 

Exercise 4 

1. Write two Declarative sentences about noted men. 
2. Write an Interrogative sentence about a person you 
know. 3. Write an Imperative sentence about some- 
thing in the schoolroom. 4. Write an Exclamatory 
sentence about the weather. 



20 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

20. Declarative Sentences Most Common. Most 
sentences are declarative. 

Interrogative and imperative sentences are like 
declarative sentences in fundamental structure, the 
difference being often only a difference in the order 
of words: as, "Can he sing?" "He can sing." 

In our study of sentence-structure, we shall speak 
chiefly of the declarative sentence, taking it as the 
type-form. 



CHAPTER IJ 

OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 

21. Two Necessary Parts to Every Sentence. 

Examine the following sentences: 

Naming Part Asserting Part 



Fire burns. 

I cut myself. 

The school bell has just rung. 

The big dog in Mr. Smith's yard barked at me. 

You observe that each sentence has two parts — 
the naming part and an asserting part — and that 
both parts are necessary. 

22. Subject and Predicate Defined. The part 
of a sentence which names that about which some- 
thing is asserted is called the Subject. 

The asserting part of a sentence is called the 
Predicate (Latin, "thing said"). 

Definition. The subject of a sentence is the part 
which denotes that about which something is 
asserted. 

Definition. The predicate of a sentence is the 
part which makes the assertion. 



22 



SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 



In an interrogative sentence the predicate asks something. 
In an imperative sentence the predicate commands, and 

the subject is generally omitted, because the subject of a 
command is always the person or persons spoken to, and to 



name it 
forget." 



is unnecessary:' as, "Listen [ye]"; "Don't [you] 



Exercise 5 



Write a Sentence suggested by each of 
Subjects: 

-. 5. Chalk . 



following 



1. Flowers 

2. Lions — 

3. Indians 

4. Stars — 



6. Farmers ■ 

7. Chickens 

8. Bees 



9. I . 

10. He . 

11. Who 

12. My desk 



Exercise 6 

Write Sentences containing the following Predicates: 
— sing. 6. will be here soon. 



climb, 
spin, 
trot, 
grow. 



7. Can ride a bicycle? 

8. Twice was thrown. 

9". What large muscles 

10. will help me? 



has! 



23. Position of the Subject. 

not always come first. Thus: 

Predicate 

Up went 

Then burst 

There was 

The last of all the bards was 

In the shade of the great elm trees 

stands 



The subject does 



Subject 

the balloon, 
his mighty heart, 
a little man. 
he. 

a weather-beaten 
house. 



OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 23 

Sometimes the subject is put between parts of 
the predicate like a wedge. In the following sen- 
tences, for example, the subjects are printed in italics : 

Is Fred coming? 

Where do pineapples grow? 

How fast the snow falls! 

Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 

At the appointed time the gladiators marched into the arena. 

Has every pupil in the class brought his books? 

When the predicate of a declarative sentence fol- 
lows the subject, the sentence is said to be in the 
Natural Order. When the predicate precedes the 
subject, the sentence is in Inverted Order. 

Exercise 7 1 

Separate each of the following sentences into Subject 
and Predicate, and tell the kind of sentence: 

I 

1. Down went the Royal George. 

Model for Oral Exercise. A declarative sentence. 
The subject is "the Royal George/' because it denotes that 
about which something is asserted. The predicate is "down 
went" (or, "went down") because it is the part which makes 
the assertion. 

l To the Teacher. At this stage of the work no attention should be 
paid to the simple subject and the simple predicate, — a more difficult 
step in analysis which should be deferred till the next chapter. In the 
exercises in this chapter, attention should be fixed exclusively on the 
complete subject and the complete predicate. 

''In accordance with sound modern tendencies in teaching, the first 
process in grammatical analysis should be^to deal with sentences as a 
whole, distinguishing subject and predicate, principal and subordinate 
clauses, etc." — Report of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomen- 
clature, p. 13. 



24 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

Model for Written Exercise. 

S. P. 

• The Royal George went down 

2. Wise are all His ways. 

3. Are your friends coming? 

4. That gale I well remember. 

5. Doubtful seemed the battle. 

6. Of noble race the lady came. 

7. Where did you find your book? 

8. The way of transgressors is hard. 

9. Great is your reward in heaven. 

10. The memory of the just is blessed. 

11. Up flew the windows all. 

II 

12. Our revels now are ended. 

13. Overhead I heard a murmur. 

14. Wherefore stopp'st thou me? 

15. Which way does the wind come? 

16. Flashed all their sabres bare. 

17. Great is Diana of the Ephesians. 

18. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 

19. Ten spears he swept within his grasp. 

20. Oft did the harvest to their sickle yield. 

21. Me he restored to mine office. 

Ill 

22. One new-made mound I saw close by. 

23. Deep drank Lord Marmion of the wave. 

24. There lay the rider distorted and pale. 

25. Where are those lights so many and fair? 



OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 25 

26. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank! 

27. Books make up no small part of human happiness. 

28. True valor lies between cowardice and rashness. 

29. Of his early life few particulars have reached us. 

30. About half past one in the afternoon Sir Walter Scott 
breathed his last, in the presence of all his children. 

31. At the fiftieth anniversary of the battle of Gettys- 
burg fifty-three thousand old soldiers, both Union and 
Confederate, encamped on the battle-field in friendly re- 
union. 

Exercise 8 

Separate each of the following sentences into Subject 
and Predicate: 

i. At the door, on summer evenings, 
Sat the little Hiawatha. 

2. On the ear 

Drops the light drip of the suspended oar. 

3. Her wing shall the eagle flap 
O'er the false-hearted. 

4. The pavement damp and cold 
No smiling courtiers tread. 

5. Under the walls of Monterey 

At day-break the bugles began to play. 

6. Meanwhile, from street and lane, a noisy crowd 
Had rolled together, like a summer cloud. 

7. The castle's bound 
I wander round, 
Amidst the grassy graves. 

8. Stormed at with shot and shell 
Boldly they rode and well. 

Caution. Consider carefully whether "stormed at with shot and 
shell" describes the horsemen or the riding. Be on your guard against 
mistakes in similar cases. 



26 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

9. In the courtyard of the castle, bound with many an 
iron band, 
Stands the mighty linden planted by Queen Kuni- 
gunde's hand. 
10. In the Acadian land, on the shores of the Basin of 
Minas, 
Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand-Pre 
Lay in a fruitful valley. 

Exercise 9 

Write two sentences in which the Subjects come 
first; two in which the Subjects come last; one in which 
the Subject comes between parts of the predicate. 

24. Compound Subjects. Very often the same pred- 
icate is used with two or more connected subjects : as, 

Connected Subjects Predicate 



Flowers and ferns grow beside the brook. 
The present scene, the future lot, his 
toils, his wants were forgotten. 

Two or more connected subjects having the same 
predicate form a Compound Subject. 

25. Compound Predicates. Very often the same 
subject has several connected predicates: as, 

Subjects Connected Predicates 



States rise and fall. 
The King of Hearts called for the tarts and beat the knave 
full sore. 

Two or more connected predicates having the same 
subject form a Compound Predicate. 



OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 27 

26. Compound Subject and Predicate. Some- 
times both subject and predicate are compound: as, 

Compound Subject Compound Predicate 



Spring and summer came and went. 

Exercise 10 

In the following sentences separate the Subjects from 
the Predicates. If a subject or a predicate is compound, 
separate it into its parts: 

I 

i. She and her brother were there. 

Model for Oral Exercise. The subject is "She and 
her brother,"— a compound subject consisting of "She" and 
"her brother" connected by "and." The predicate is "were 
there." 

Model for Written Exercise. 

S. P. 

She | 

and \ were there, 

her brother J 

2. Charity sufTereth long and is kind. 

3. Copper and tin are found in England. 

4. The mountain and the squirrel had a quarrel. 

5. Byron awoke one morning and found himself famous. 

6. All day the snow fell, and was piled in great drifts. 

7. Mountain and lake and valley a charming picture make. 

8. The house cost only eight hundred dollars but was 
very comfortable. 

9. Spring and summer, autumn and winter, rush by in 
quick succession. 



28 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

10. Scepter and crown 

Must tumble down. 
ii. Jack and Jill went up the hill 

To fetch a pail of water. 

II 

12. The lion and the unicorn 
Were fighting for the crown. 

13. The stranger came with iron hand 
And from our fathers reft the land. 

14. Little Bo-Peep fell fast asleep 

And dreamt she heard them bleating. 

15. Then my heart with pleasure fills 
And dances with the daffodils. 

16. The foolish and the dead never change their opinions. 

17. The optic nerve passes from the brain to the back of 
the eyeball, and there spreads out. 

18. The horses and the cattle were fastened in the same 
stables and were fed at the same time. 

19. The natives of Ceylon build houses of the trunks of 
cocoanut palms and thatch the roofs with the leaves. 

20. A great Danish fleet came to Scotland, landed its men 
in Fife, and threatened to take possession of that province. 

21. The formal terraces, heavily moulded balustrades, 
and clipped yew trees carried with them an air of proud 
aristocracy. 

Exercise 11 

In the following sentences separate the Subjects 
from the Predicates. If a subject or a predicate is 
compound, separate it into its parts: 

1. The authors of books talk to us, give us their most 
precious thoughts, and pour their souls into ours. 



OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE . 29 

Model for Written Exercise: 

S. P. 

/ talk to us, 

The authors of books { g ,' 
J and 

( pour their souls, etc. 

2. The ancient seats of the gentry in England and the larger 
farmhouses were fortified against roving bands of robbers. 

3. Arms, huge stones, and boiling water were always kept 
in readiness for use in repelling plunderers. 

4. Of the old baronial keeps many had been shattered by 
the cannon of Fairfax and Cromwell, and lay in heaps of ruin. 

5. Dragoons were armed with muskets, and were also 
provided with bayonets, fitted into the muzzles of their guns. 

6. The fine horses of the Life Guards, their rich housings, 
their cuirasses, and their buff coats adorned with ribbons, 
velvet, and gold lace, made a splendid appearance in St. 
James's Park. 

7. The common law of England knew nothing of courts- 
martial, and made no distinction in time of peace between a 
soldier and any other subject. 

8. A soldier by knocking down his colonel incurred only 
the ordinary penalties of assault and battery, and by refus- 
ing to obey orders incurred no legal penalty at all. 

9. The thunder, 

Winged with red lightning and impetuous rage, 
Perhaps hath spent his shafts, and ceases now 
To bellow through the vast and boundless deep. 
10. The mind is its own place, and in itself 

Can make a Heaven of Hell, a Hell of Heaven. 

Exercise 12 

Write two sentences with Compound Subjects; two 
with Compound Predicates; one in which both Sub- 
ject and Predicate are Compound. 



30 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

Exercise 13 1 

(Review) 

In the following sentences separate the Subjects from 
the Predicates: 

I 
i. Here stands the man. 

2. Overhead I saw an aeroplane. 

3. Whom did the old man ask for? 

4. Adown the glen rode armed men. 

5. The aged minstrel audience gained. 

6. Great and marvelous are Thy works. 

7. A merry heart maketh a cheerful countenance. 

8. The precious morning hours should not be wasted. 

9. The tails of some comets stretch to the distance of 
100,000,000 miles. 

10. A little boy with crumbs of bread 
Many a hungry sparrow fed. 

II 

11. Sweet are the uses of adversity. 

12. A dainty plant is the ivy green. 



^0 the Teacher, Power to distinguish quickly the complete 
subject from the predicate, when the order is inverted, is necessary to 
the intelligent reading and appreciation of good literature, especially 
poetry, which many persons cannot understand and enjoy because they 
have never acquired this power. Sentences in the natural order present 
little or no difficulty, and therefore afford no mental training. Power 
to understand is acquired through the study of inverted sentences in 
which the distinction between subject and predicate is not obvious, 
but requires real effort. The value of the following exercises consists in 
their comparative difficulty. If they were easy they would have no 
value. Pupils who master them will lay a solid foundation for future 
work. 



OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 31 

13. That little book I treasure highly. 

14. In my Father's house are many mansions. 

15. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred. 

16. Great writers spend hours in correcting and polishing. 

17. Nansen got within two hundred and twenty-seven 
miles of the North Pole. 

18. The first standing army was formed in the middle of 
the fifteenth century. 

19. The first astronomical observatory was erected by the 
Saracens at Seville, in Spain. 

20. From floor to ceiling, 

Like a huge organ, rise the burnished arms. 

Exercise 14 

(Review) 
Separate the Subjects from the Predicates: 

1. What became of your toy steamboat? 

2. The cat, prowling round the yard, caught a young 
robin. 

3. The history of the Anglo-Saxon race is emphatically 
the history of progress. 

4. On the first day of the battle of Gettysburg the Con- 
federates captured several thousand prisoners. 

5. Underneath this sable hearse 
Lies the subject of all verse. 

6. Within a windowed niche of that high wall 
Sate Brunswick's fated chieftain. 

7. On the British heart were lost 
The terrors of the charging host. 

8. Full many a gem of purest ray serene 
The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear. 



32 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

9. Somewhat apart from the village, and nearer the 

Basin of Minas, 
Benedict Belief ontaine, the wealthiest farmer of 

Grand-Pre, 
Dwelt on his goodly acres. 
10. Far down the beautiful river, 

Past the Ohio shore and past the mouth of the Wabash, 
Into the golden stream of the broad and swift 

Mississippi 
Floated a cumbrous boat. 

Exercise 15 

(For advanced pupils) 

Separate the Subjects from the Predicates: 

1. Down the street with laughter and shout, 
Glad in the freedom of school let out, 
Come the boys. 

2. Meanwhile, apart, at the head of the hall, the priest 

and the herdsman 
Sat, conversing together of past and present and future. 

3. Down went the Cumberland all a wrack, 
With a sudden shudder of death, 

And the cannon's breath 
For her dying gasp. 

4. Serene in the rapturous throng, 
Unmoved by the rush of the song, 

With eyes unimpassioned and slow, 
Among the dead angels, the deathless 
Sandalphon stands listening breathless. 

5. Hearing his imperial name 

Coupled with those words of malice, 
Half in anger, half in shame, 
Forth the great campaigner came 
Slowly from his canvas palace. 



OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 33 

Exercise 16 

From Milton's "Paradise Lost" 
(For advanced pupils only) 

Separate the Subjects from the Predicates: 

1. To confirm his words out-flew 

Millions of flaming swords, drawn from the thighs of 
mighty cherubim. 

2. Satan, above the rest 

In shape and gesture proudly eminent, 
Stood like a tower. 

3. His face 

Deep scars of thunder had intrenched. 

4. Him the Almighty Power 

Hurled headlong flaming from the ethereal sky, 
With hideous ruin and combustion, down 
To bottomless perdition. 

5. On each hand the flames 

Driven backward slope their pointing spires. 

6. The imperial ensign, full high advanced, 
Shone like a meteor streaming to the wind, 
With gems and golden luster rich emblazed. 

7. Anon out of the earth a fabric huge 
Rose like an exhalation, with the sound 
Of dulcet symphonies and voices sweet, 
Built like a temple. 

8. From the arched roof, 

Pendent by subtle magic, many a row 
Of starry lamps and blazing cressets, fed 
With naphtha and asphaltus, yielded light 
As from a sky. 



CHAPTER III 

OF SIMPLE SUBJECT AND VERB 1 

27. Simple Subject and Verb Defined. Compare 
the following sentences: 

Subject Predicate 



Stars twinkle. 
The beautiful stars, which are twinkle brightly on frosty 
really suns about a million nights, 
miles in diameter and trillions 
of miles away,, 

You observe that one sentence is composed of 
two words, the other of many; but the fundamental 
structure is the same. Both make assertions about 
stars, and in both cases the assertion is that stars 
twinkle. But in the second sentence the principal 
words, "stars" and "twinkle," are accompanied by 
other words and groups of words. 

The principal word in the complete subject of a 
sentence is called the Simple Subject. 

The asserting word in the predicate of a sentence 
is called the Verb. 

Definition. The simple subject is the principal 
word in the complete subject. 

Definition. A verb is a word used to assert. 

x To the Teacher. In this chapter only those features of the verb are 
treated which are needed for an understanding of the general structure 
of sentences. 

The Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature suggests the 
term Subject Substantive, which may be used instead of Simple Subject, 
if the school authorities desire. 

34 



OF SIMPLE SUBJECT AND VERB 35 

Other examples are : 

Complete Subject Predicate 



Low black clouds usually gather before a storm. 

Simple Verb. 

Subject. 

The conditions of war vary from age to age with 

Simple Verb. 

Subject * the progress of weapons. 

A word used to denote something about which 
the speaker is thinking is called a Substantive. 
The simple subject is always a substantive or a group 
of words used substantively. 

In condensed form we may say : Sentence = sub- 
stantive + predicate. 

The term Substantive includes nouns, pronouns, and 
certain uses of adjectives, adverbs, and infinitives, which are 
treated in Part II: as, 

/ Noun: Rest is sweet. 

.> I Pronoun: He is weary. 

g 1 Adjective: The weary are at rest, 

w ) Adverb: Now is the time to rest. 

5 / Infinitive: To rest is sweet. 

\ Gerund: Playing tag is good fun. 

Exercise 17 

In the following sentences separate the Complete 
Subjects from the Predicates, and point out the 
Simple Subjects and the Verbs: 

1. The ripest fruit falls first. 

Model for Oral Exercise. The complete subject is 
"The ripest fruit," the simple subject being "fruit." The 
predicate is "falls first," in which the verb is "falls." 



36 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

Model for Written Exercise: 

S. P. 

The ripest fruit falls first. 

2. The good news arrived yesterday. 

3. A soft answer turneth away wrath. 

4. A hot fire of coals burned in the grate. 

5. A fox jumped up on a moonlight night. 

6. The sudden splash frightened the nurse. 

7. Bright-eyed daisies peep up everywhere. 

8. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 

9. Three wise men of Gotham went to sea in a bowl. 

10. Waldo, playing on the bank of the brook, tumbled 
into the water. 

1 1 . The master of the district school 
Held at the fire his favorite place. 

Exercise 18 

Write five sentences in which the Simple Subject is 
different from the Complete Subject, and the Verb 
from the Predicate. 

28. Verbs of Action, Being, and State. Compare 
the meanings of the verbs in the following sentences: 

1. Birds sing. 

2. My lady sleeps, 

3. He loves children. 

4. There is a flaw in the metal. 

You observe that "sing" asserts action; "sleeps" 
asserts state or condition; "loves" asserts feeling; 
"is" asserts existence or being. It is sometimes said, 



OF SIMPLE SUBJECT AND VERB 37 

therefore, that a verb is a word that asserts action, 
being, or state — feelings being looked on as mental 
actions. 

Most verbs assert action. 

Exercise 19 

Write three sentences in which the Verbs assert 
Action; one in which the Verb asserts State or Con- 
dition; one in which it asserts Existence or Being. 

29. The Verb "Be." Compare the predicates in 
the following sentences: 

The lightning flashed. 
Lightning is electricity. 

In the first sentence, you observe, the predicate 
consists of the verb "flashed," which does two things: 
first, it calls up in the mind an idea of sudden bril- 
liance; secondly, it asserts this brilliance of the 
lightning. In other words, it has both meaning and 
assertive power. 

In the second sentence, the predicate consists of 
two words, "is" and "electricity," each of which is 
necessary. "Electricity" is a word of definite 
meaning, calling up in the mind an idea necessary to 
the predicate; but it has no assertive power. The 
assertive part of the predicate is supplied by the verb 
"is." But though the verb "is" has this assertive 
power, it does not by itself form a complete asser- 
tion, but links the word "electricity" to the subject 
in such a way as to form a predicate. 



38 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

Other forms of the same verb are used in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

Be ye perfect. 

I am well. 

Thou art the man. 

The windows are open. 

The sun was hot. 

The nuts were ripe. 

These forms of the verb "be" are here instruments 
of assertion, used to make predicates with words that 
cannot by themselves make assertions. They link 
together two different ideas in such a way as to as- 
sert one of the other. They often resemble in force 
the mathematical symbol of equality or identity, 

Exercise 20 

Make a list of the forms of the Verb "Be" in the 
following sentences'. 

i. Daniel Webster was an orator. 

2. Art thou a stranger in the city? 

3. Books are the legacies of genius. 

4. London is the capital of England. 

5. If he were here I would not hesitate. 

6. I am in full sympathy with the movement. 

7. The motives attributed to his acts were good. 

8. How truly is a kind heart a fountain of gladness! 

9. Where wast thou when I laid the foundations of the 
earth? 

10. Be it ever so humble, 

There is no place like home. 



OF SIMPLE SUBJECT AND VERB 39 

Exercise 21 

i. Write three sentences in which forms of the Verb 
"Be " are used with assertive power only. 

2. Write two sentences in which forms of the Verb 
"Be" are used to denote existence. 

30. Verb Phrases. Examine the following pred- 
icates : 

Subject Predicate 

studies, (a) 
is studying, (b) 
has studied, (c) 
Dorothy has been studying, (d) 

will study, (e) 
may be studying. (/) 
may have been studying, (g) 
should have been studying, (h) 

Here we have eight different assertions about 
Dorothy. All of the assertions refer to a single 
action, namely, Dorothy's studying. But the first 
assertion is made by one word, the others by two or 
more words taken together, either of which is neces- 
sary, and each of which is itself a form of a verb. 

A group of words used as a single verb is called a 
Verb Phrase. 

Definition. A verb phrase is a group of words 
used as a single verb. 

31. Verb Phrases in Interrogative, Negative, and 
Emphatic Sentences. In interrogative and nega- 



40 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

tive sentences modern usage requires verb' phrases. 
Compare, for example, the following sentences: 

Declarative: She sings. 
Interrogative : Does she sing? 
Negative : She does not sing. 

Sometimes a verb phrase has the force of an 
emphatic assertion, implying that the thing which is 
asserted has been doubted. Compare, for example, 
the following sentences: 

Declarative: She sings. 
Emphatic: She does sing. 

Exercise 22 

In the following sentences separate the Complete 
Subjects from the Predicates and point out the Simple 
Subjects and the Verb Phrases: 

For Models, see Exercise 17. 

1. I did tell you. 

2. Who will help him? 

3. I am reading Ivanhoe. 

4. They had had a hard day. 

5. John has cut his ringer. 

6. Father may be in his study. 

7. She would have her own way. 

8. You might have told me before. 

9. Katherine has finished the book. 

10. To-morrow I shall have finished it. 

1 1 . A large eagle was soaring overhead. 



OF SIMPLE SUBJECT AND VERB 41 

12. Father has been writing all morning. 

13. The child would play by himself for hours. 

14. He might have been doing something useful. 

15. Carrie must have been dreaming this morning. 

16. You will have paid too dear for the whistle. 

17. By to-morrow I shall have had enough of this. 

18. This ring may have been worn by a Roman dandy. 

19. By this time he should have learned more caution. 

20. Swallows were twittering round the eaves of the 
general's headquarters 

Exercise 23 

Change the sentences in Exercise 17 into Negative, 
Interrogative, or Emphatic form, and point out the 
Verb Phrases which you use in the new sentences. 

32. Caution. In such sentences as "The sun is 
shining" and "The sun is hot" it often seems hard 
to decide whether the italicized word, coming after 
a form of the verb "be," is or is not a part of the 
verb. 

A good working test is this: If the predicate of 
the sentence expresses action, the word in question 
is part of the verb. If the predicate expresses a 
condition or quality of the subject, the word in 
question is not a part of the verb. For example, 
in the following sentences the verbs are printed 
in italics: 

"The sun is shining" (action). 
"The sun is hot" (condition). 



42 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

Exercise 24 

Tell whether the words printed in italics are to be 
viewed as parts of the Verbs: 

i . The key is lost. 

2. The key was lost by Bridget. 

3. Tennyson is dead. 

4. He was buried with solemn ceremony in Westminster 
Abbey. 

5. I shall be studying Latin by that time. 

6. I shall be rested by that time. 

7. Charlie has hurt his ankle. 

8. The ligaments are sprained. 

9. They were sprained in the football game last Saturday. 

10. We have been happy together. 

11. Books are soiled by use. 

12. These books are not soiled. 

13. The house is deserted. 

14. It was deserted by the owners two years after it was 
built. 

15. The prisoners are guilty. 

16. The sun is bright. 

17. The stars are shining. 

18. Dandelions are blossoming by the road. 

19. The baby has been crying. 

20. Ralph has been sick. 

21. The cry was loud. 

22. The cry was heard by a passer-by. 

23. Were you careful? 

24. The troops were exhausted. 

25. They had been marching all night. 



OF SIMPLE SUBJECT AND VERB 43 

33. Verb Phrases Separated. Compare the fol- 
lowing sentences: 

The mail has come. 
Has the mail come? 
The mail has just come. 

You observe that the parts of a verb phrase 
are often separated by other words. Other exam- 
ples are: 

Have you not heard? 

I do not yet know. 

Has the man in the moon been married indeed? 



Exercise 25 

In the following sentences separate the Subjects from 
the Predicates, and point out the Simple Subjects and 
the Verb Phrases: 

For Models, see Exercise 17. 

1. I have not seen him yet. 

2. The leaves are slowly changing. 

3. He will certainly lose his place. 

4. Have you finished your lesson? 

5. She will sometimes lose her temper. 

6. We are now reading "Tom Brown's School Days." 

7. Did the man in the boat see the thief? 

8. May not the coat have been taken by some one else? 

9. A general's orders should always be promptly obeyed. 
10. He had a few days before been elected captain of 

the team. 



44 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

Exercise 26 

(Review) 

Make lists of the Simple Subjects and the Verbs or 
Verb Phrases in the following: 

Exercise 7. 
Exercise 13. 
Exercise 14. 
Exercises 15 and 16. 



CHAPTER IV 

OF COMPLEMENTS OF THE VERB 

34. Verbs of Complete Predication. Examine 
the following sentences: 

Subject Predicate 



The wind arose. 

The lightning flashed. 

The thunder rolled. 

The rain fell. 

In each of these sentences the predicate consists 
of a verb which makes a complete assertion. 

A verb that by itself can make a complete assertion 
and form a complete predicate is called a Verb of 
Complete Predication. 

35. Verbs of Incomplete Predication. Now let 

us try to make assertions with the verbs "are," 
"was," "became," "frightened," "built," "have," 
thus: 

Subject Verb 



These men are 

Washington was 

Tennyson became 

You frightened 

The Romans built 

Battleships have 

45 



4 6 



SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 



You see at once that something is wanting. 
Though we have in each case put together a subject 
and a verb as before, we have not made complete 
assertions, for the verbs do not by themselves form 
complete predicates. 

A verb that does not by itself form a complete 
predicate is called a Verb of Incomplete Predication. 

36. Complements Defined. In order to form a 
predicate with a verb of incomplete predication we 
must add a completing word: thus, 



Subject 


Pr^Hi r.jitp 


Verb 


Complement 


These men 


are 


soldiers. 


Washington 


was 


president. 


Tennyson 


became 


poet-laureate. 


You 


frightened 


me. 


The Romans 


built 


ships. 


Battleships 


have 


armor. 



A word used with a verb to complete the predicate 
is called a Complement ("completing part"). 

Definition. A verb of complete predication is a 
verb that by itself forms a complete predicate. 

Definition. A verb of incomplete predication is a 
verb that does not by itself form a complete predicate. 

Definition. A complement is a word used with a 
verb to complete the predicate. 



OF COMPLEMENTS OF THE VERB 47 

37, Caution. Complements, which must be added 
to make some predicates complete, are to be care- 
fully distinguished from words that may be added 
to make the meaning more precise. 

For example, in the sentence "The rain fell fast," 
the word "fast" is not a complement, for we should 
have a complete sentence without it. 

38. Subjective Complements. Are all comple- 
ments of the same kind? In order to answer, let us 
examine some typical sentences, taking first the 
following : 

Subject Verb Complement 



Tabby is a cat. 

Tabby looks wise. 

I am he. 

In these sentences, the complements describe or 
explain the subject, and the verbs are linking verbs. 

A word used to complete the predicate and at 
the same time describe or explain the subject is 
called a Subjective Complement. 1 

Definition. A subjective complement is a word 
used to complete the predicate and at the same time 
describe or explain the subject. 

*To the Teacher. Subjective Complement seems to be the most 
acceptable common term to include Predicate Substantives of any kind 
and Predicate Adjectives, which have the common property of com- 
pleting the predicate and at the same time describing, explaining, or 
identifying the subject. As soon, however, as the pupil learns to dis- 
tinguish nouns, pronouns, adjectives, infinitives, etc., he should drop 
the term Subjective Complement, and use instead Predicate Noun, 
Predicate Pronoun, Predicate Adjective, Predicate Infinitive, etc. 



48 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

Other examples are: 



Subject 



Verb 



Subjective 
Complement 



These men 

Washington 

Roses 

His name 




soldiers, 
president, 
sweet. 
John. 



39. Object Complements. Let us examine, now, 
the following sentences : 



Subject 

Tabby 
Birds 



Verb 

catches 
build 



Complement 

mice. 

nests. 



In these sentences you observe that the verbs 
denote actions which involve two things: (i) the 
doer of the action, and (2) the receiver of it or the 
thing produced by it. 

The doer of the action is named by the subject; 
the complement names the receiver of the action or 
the thing produced by it. 

A verb that denotes an action that passes over 
from a doer to a receiver is called a Transitive 
Verb (180). 

A complement that denotes the receiver of the 
action expressed by a verb, or the thing produced 
by it, is called the Direct Object of the verb. 

Definition. The direct object of a verb is the 
word that denotes the receiver of the action, or the 
thing produced by it. 



OF COMPLEMENTS OF THE VERB 



40 



Other examples are: 
Subject Verb 



Object 



I see 
I cut 
Battleships have 
The Romans built 


you. 
myself, 
armor, 
ships 

Exercise 27 1 


} 


Receiver of the 
action. 

Product of the 
action. 



Complete the following sentences by supplying Com- 
plements appropriate to the verbs, and tell whether the 
Complements which you supply are Direct Objects or 
Subjective Complements: 



Model for Written Exercise 






S. V. 


D.O. S.C. 




Tabby looks 




wise. 




Tabby catches 


mice. 


i. 


Squirrels crack . 


6. 


Columbus discovered 


2. 


Grocers sell . 


7- 


Farmers raise . 


3- 


Lincoln became . 


8. 


The sky is . 


4- 


Lee was 


9- 


The air grew . 


5- 


Charles saw . 


IO. 


The room looks . 



1 To the Teacher. As all teachers of language know, the important 
distinction between objects and subjective complements is a stumbling 
block to many pupils. Yet the distinction is not difficult., if presented 
in the right way. It may help backward pupils to be told that a sub- 
jective complment reiers to the same person or thing as the subject, while 
a direct object refers to a different person or thing, except in such sen- 
tences as "I cut myself." 

Many mistakes have been caused by the old but very misleading 
saying that "An object answers the question 'what?' or 'whom?' placed 
after the verb." The weakness of this test may be seen by applying it 
to the sentence, "These men are soldiers " : thus, "These men are what? " 
Answer, "Soldiers." But "soldiers" is not a direct object. 

At this stage no attention need be paid to the distinction between 



50 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

Exercise 28 

i. To each of the following subjects add an appro- 
priate predicate consisting of a Verb and a Comple- 
ment, and tell whether the Complement is a Direct 
Object or a Subjective Complement: 

i. Hens . 6. Carpenters . 

2. Jewelers . 7. Monkeys . 

3. Cats . 8, Clouds ■ . 

4. We . 9. Mary . 



5. Birds . 10. Soldiers . 

2. Write three sentences containing Direct Objects; 
two containing Subjective Complements. 

Exercise 29 

(Review) 

Separate each of the following sentences into Subject 
and Predicate, point out the Verbs and the Comple- 
ments, and tell whether the Complements are Direct 
Objects or Subjective Complements. 

I. 

1. Tom broke a window. 

Model for Oral Exercise. The subject is "Tom." 
The predicate is "broke a window." The verb is "broke." 
"Window" is a direct object, because it completes the 
predicate and denotes the receiver of the action. 

predicate nouns and predicate adjectives, which will naturally take care of 
itself later. "One thing at a time"; and the one thing at this stage is 
the distinction between objects and subjective complements. Whether 
the latter are nouns or adjectives makes, at this stage, no difference. 



OF COMPLEMENTS OF THE VERB 51 

Model for Written Exercise: 

S. V. D.O. S.C. 

Tom broke window 

2. Chaucer was a poet. 

3. Saul was made king. 

4. Do you study Latin? 

5. Bruno bit the tramp. 

6. She turned her back. 

7. She looked a goddess. 

8. Arnold turned traitor. 

9. Who killed Cock Robin? 

10. Who will toll the bell? 

11. Some one took my bicycle. 

12. The bird forsook her nest. 

13. A man's house is his castle. 

14. Righteousness exalteth a nation. 

15. Joan of Arc seemed a holy woman. 

16. Gladstone became prime minister. 

17. Demosthenes and Cicero were orators. 

18. None but the brave deserve the fair. 

19. My father remained secretary for the rest of his life. 

20. Sir Samuel Baker was a great hunter and explorer. 

21. He killed many lions, tigers and elephants, and in- 
numerable smaller animals. 



II. 



22. Comparisons are odious. 

23. To-night no moon I see. 

24. Britannia rules the wave. 

25. Augustus was made emperor. 



52 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

26. The two roads run parallel. 

27. We struck the boat amidships. 

28. Wisdom hath builded her house. 

29. A wise son maketh a glad father. 

30. King Alfred was called Truth Teller. 

31. Who wrote "The Star-spangled Banner"? 

32. He came a foe and returned a friend. 

33. Nathan Hale died a martyr to liberty. 

34. The wind was blowing a smacking breeze. 

35. Ethel grew tall, beautiful, and queenly. 

36. To Lord Byron Venice seemed a sea-goddess 

37. The laws of nature are the thoughts of God. 

38. A foolish son is the heaviness of his mother. 

39. The dove found no rest for the sole of her foot. 

40. The kings of Egypt are in the Bible called Pharaohs. 

41. Washington was elected the first President of the 
United States. 

40. Objective Complements. Examine the fol- 
lowing groups of words : 



Subject 


Predicate 




Verb Object 


The Hebrews 
This 


made Saul 
made him 



In these groups of words we have subject, verb, 
and object; yet we do not have complete sentences. 
Additional words are needed, to answer the questions, 
"What did the Hebrews make Saul?" and "What 



OF COMPLEMENTS OF THE VERB 53 

did this make him?" The lack is supplied in the 
following sentences : 



Subject 




Predicate 




Verb 

made 
made 


Direct 
Object 

Saul 
him 


Second 
Complement 


The Hebrews 
This 


king, 
vain. 



The function or use of the second complements, 
"king" and "vain," will appear if we write the 
sentences as follows: 

Subject , Predicate , 



Verb Object 



The Hebrews made-king Saul 

(crowned) 

This made-vain him. 

(spoiled) 

From this we see that "king" and "vain" help the 
verb "made" to express a certain action, and at the 
same time they denote attributes of Saul resulting 
from that action. 

A word that completes the predicate and at the 
same time describes the direct object is called an 
Objective Complement. 1 

Definition. An objective complement is a word 
used to complete the predicate and describe the 
direct object. 

^he Report of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature 
suggests the term Adjunct Accusative, which may be substituted for 
Objective Complement, if desired by the school authorities. 



54 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

Other examples are : 



Subject 




Predicate 




Verb 

elected 
makes 
struck 


Direct 
Object 

Harry 

me 

Ananias 


Objective 
Complement 


We 

Swinging 
God 


captain. 

giddy. 

dead. 


The Persian army 


drank 


the rivers 


dry. 




Exercise 30 





i. Fill the blanks with Objective Complements, and 
show that they belong both to the verb and to the object: 



i. They named the 
boy . 

2. The people made 

Washington . 

3. Henry painted his 

house . 



4. They called the state 

5. Let us appoint her — 

6. Pride kept her . 

7. Why did you choose me - 

8. She swept the room — 



2. Write two sentences containing Objective Com- 
plements. 

Exercise 31 

(Review.) 

Point out the Simple Subjects, the Verbs, the 
Direct Objects, and the Objective Complements: 

1. Victoria, the queen of England, made Tennyson a 
baron because of her admiration for his poetry. 



OF COMPLEMENTS OF THE VERB 



55 



Model for Written Exercise : 



S. 

Victoria 



V. 

made 



D.O. 

Tennyson 



O.C. 

baron 



2. Attention held them mute. 

3. She carries her head high. 

4. They sang themselves hoarse. 

5. We cannot pump the ocean dry. 

6. Get the horses ready immediately. 

7. Cradles rock us nearer to the tomb. 

8. Time makes the worst enemies friends. 

9. The carpenter planed the board smooth. 

10. One touch of nature makes the whole world kin. 

11. Custom renders the feelings blunt and callous. 

12. You think him humble, but God accounts him proud. 

13. All Napoleon's conquests did not make him happy. 

14. Make the memory a storehouse, not a lumber room. 

15. Dr. Holmes called Boston the hub of the universe. 

16. Cromwell made the poet Milton Secretary of State. 

17. Madame de Stael called architecture frozen music. 

18. Whosoever maketh himself a king speaketh against 
Caesar. 

19. God called the light Day, and the darkness he called 
Night. 

20. A crumb of bread thrown in jest made Prescott, the 
historian, blind for life. 

21. King George II appointed Franklin Postmaster- 
General of the British Colonies in America. 



41. Two or More Complements to One Verb. 

Sometimes a single verb has two or more comple- 
ments: as, 



56 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

Subject Verb Complements 



We study arithmetic and grammar. 

Addison was a gentleman and a scholar. 

42. Two or More Verbs with One Complement. 

Sometimes a single complement belongs to two or 
more verbs : as, 

Subject Verbs Complement 



Noble minds loathe and despise falsehood. 

To the Teacher. Indirect objects, which are modifiers rather than 
complements, are treated in the next chapter. 

At this stage of the work no attention should be paid to "nouns," 
"pronouns," "adjectives," "adverbs," etc., a more difficult branch of 
analysis, which should be deferred until after the pupil has mastered 
the larger and fundamental conceptions of subject, verb, complement, 
and modifier. The "parts of speech" will be treated in due time in 
Part II. 



CHAPTER V 

OF MODIFIERS 

From our previous study it is clear that the essen- 
tial parts of language are Subject, Verb, and Com- 
plement. They are, as it were, the bones of every 
sentence, giving shape to the thought, and holding 
it together. 

But these essential parts are. seldom used alone. 
Generally they are accompanied by expressions that, 
without being essential, fill out the thought and 
give it definiteness and accuracy, something as 
flesh rounds out the human form. 

Such expressions are called Modifiers, and they 
consist sometimes of one word, sometimes of many 
words used in groups. They are very frequent 
and important. 

43. Modifiers Defined. Many words have mean- 
ings so wide that they must be narrowed before they 
exactly fit our thought. For example, the word 
"horses" applies to all the horses in the world; but 
we seldom wish to speak of all horses. To bring 
the meaning of the word down to the measure of 
our thought we add to it some word, or words, by 
way of limitation or description : thus, 

57 



58 



SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 



Black 

Big 

Fast 

Beautiful 

Good 

Trotting 

Our 

Your 

These 

Two 

Some 

Both 



horses. 



Similarly there are many varieties of the action 
expressed by the verb "went": as, 

slowly. 

cheerfully. 

fast. 

there. 

before. 

again. 

soon. 

immediately. 

yesterday. 

twice. 

little. 

often. 



He went 



Often we use several limiting or describing words : 



as, 



Your beautiful black trotting horses. 
He often went there before. 



A word used to modify or limit the meaning of 
another word is called a Modifier. 



OF MODIFIERS 



59 



Definition. A modifier is a word used to limit 
or modify the meaning of another word. 

Modifiers may be used with any or all of the 
principal parts of a sentence: as, 



Modified 


Modifi 


sd Moc 


Lined 


Subject 


Verb 


Complement 


The 




yesterday 


some 




Some 




to-day 


many 




These 




often 


twelve 




Five 




never 


big 




Little 
Big 


•boys 


there 
again 


, , small 
► found 

rosy 


- apples. 


Spanish 




once 


sweet 




American 




seldom 


sour. 




Smith's 




quickly 


ripe 




Our 




surely 


green 





Exercise 32 

Use appropriate Modifiers with the following words: 



i. - 

2. - 

3- ' 

4- " 

5- " 

6. Lie — 

7. Run — 

8. Think 

9. Sit — 
10. 



oranges. 

music. 

clouds. 

roses. 

wind. 



11. 

12. 

i3- 

14. Come 

15. Go — 

16. Stay - 

17. Step - 

18. Rise- 



balls. 



19. Sleep - 

20. Speak 



houses. 

candy. 

dogs. 



and 



60 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

Exercise 33 

i. Mention as many words as you can that might 
be used as Modifiers of each of the following words: 

wagon dog leaf coat tree 

2. Write ten sentences, using each of the following 
words as a Modifier: 

to-day that never here slowly 

large four not idle well 

Exercise 34 

Make a list of the words used as Modifiers in 
Exercise 8, and opposite each write the word which it 
modifies. 

44. Caution. Care must be taken not to con- 
found modifiers of the verb with complements. 
A modifier shows the time, place, manner or degree 
of the action, being, or state expressed by the verb. 
A direct object denotes the object on which the action 
expressed by the verb falls; a subjective complement 
points back to the subject, which it describes or 
explains. 

Exercise 35 

In the following sentences tell whether the italicized 
words are Direct Objects, Subjective Complements, or 
Modifiers of the verb: 
i. Father called again. 

2. King Alfred was called Truth-teller. 

3. The regiment marched forth. 



OF MODIFIERS 61 

4. Gehazi went out a leper. 

5. She sang a ballad. 

6. She sang well. 

7. Bismarck was a German. 

8. The ship sailed yesterday. 

9. The policeman looked s^r/3/. 

10. Lot's wife looked back. 

11. The deacon's horse ran a race. 

12. The deacon's horse ran away. 

13. Vesuvius is a volcano. 

14. Helen wrote yesterday. 

15. She wrote a composition. 

16. She writes we//. 

17. Mother is sewing late to-night. 

18. She is sewing my dress. 

19. To-morrow will be Saturday. 

20. The man turned his head. 

21. The men turned pirates. 

22. The man turned round. 

23. He walked a mile. 

24. He walked his horse. 

25. The Romans were great soldiers. 

26. Who fought there? 

27. Who fought King Richard? 

28. Who fought best? 

29. The ship struck a rac^. 

30. The ship struck head-on. 

45. Analysis. When, in order to show its struc- 
ture, we separate a sentence into its parts, we are 
said to Analyze it (Greek, "to take apart"). 



62 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

Definition. Analysis is the process of separating 
a sentence into its parts in order to show its structure. 

In order to analyze a sentence completely we 
must tell — 

(i) The kind of sentence. 

(2) The complete subject. 

(3) The predicate. 

(4) The simple subject. 

(5) The verb. 

(6) The complement, if any. 

(7) The modifiers of subject, verb, and complement. 

(8) The modifiers of modifiers. 

46. Diagrams. It is sometimes convenient, as 
a time-saving device, to show the fundamental 
structure of a sentence by means of a graphic rep- 
resentation, called a Diagram. For example, the 
structure of the sentence, 

All boys like the game of baseball, 

may be exhibited thus : 



s. 


V. 


D. 


0. 


boys 
Allj 


like 


gan 


le 
the 
of baseball. 



This diagram shows at a glance that the sentence 
has three principal parts, and that the subject has 
one modifier, the object two. 



OF MODIFIERS 63 

Similarly, the structure of the sentence, 

The lion and the unicorn 
Were fighting for the crown, 

may be shown thus: 

s. v. 

lion 



The) 

and 

unicorn 



the] 



were righting 



for crown 



[the 



Groups of words used with the force of single 
words are often best treated as units and not broken 
up into parts. ' 



1 To the Teacher. The chief value of the diagram is that it enables 
the teacher to test a pupil's insight into sentence-structure with a 
minimum of time and effort. The chief objection to it is that, being 
mechanical, it is unnatural as an expression of logical relations, reducing 
the beautiful subtleties of language to hard and fast lines, wresting the 
words out of their order, and fostering in the pupil mechanical ideas of 
the English sentence. 

Used occasionally and in moderation, the diagram is a help; but it 
should not attempt to go beyond the graphic separation of subject, verb, 
complements, and modifiers; and it should never be allowed to usurp 
the place of oral analysis, which remains the chief instrument of the 
teacher for developing quick perception and easy expression. 

The author doubts the expediency of ever extending the use of the 
diagram beyond the expression of the fundamental logical structure of 
the sentence. To attempt to show graphically all grammatical relations, 
leads to niceties of detail in the diagram, which turn it into a puzzle 
requiring a key. When a pupil becomes concerned not so much with 
the use of a word as with how to express that use graphically, the purpose 
of the diagram has become perverted, and the real object of analysis is 
lost sight of. 



64 



SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 



Exercise 36 

Analyze the following sentences by separating them 
into Simple Subject, Verb, Complements, and 
Modifiers: 

i. The old horse thrust his long neck out. 

Model for Oral Analysis. A declarative sentence. 
The complete subject is "The old horse." The predicate is 
"thrust his long neck out." The complete subject consists 
of the simple subject "horse," modified by "old" and "the." 
The predicate consists of the verb "thrust," modified by 
"out," and the object "neck," modified by "his" and "long." 

Model for Written Analysis: 



s. 

horse 


V. O. 

thrust neck. 


old 




|out 


long 


The 


his 



2. I have not much time. 

3. Every dog has his day. 

4. Many hands make light work. 

5. Little strokes fell great oaks. 

6. An undevout astronomer is mad. 

7. When shall I see you again? 

8. The postman comes twice daily. 

9. We often meet nowadays. 

10. Sometimes we exchange a few words. 

11. We seldom converse long. 

12. Here he comes. 

13. They walked up and down. 



OF MODIFIERS 65 

14. Where did you find those apples? 

15. I have nearly finished my work. 

16. We shall surely expect you to-day. 

17. Perhaps your sister will come too. 

18. The noblest mind the best contentment has. 

19. Why did you come here to-day? 

20. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 

21. Meanwhile we did our nightly chores. 

22. Where is your hat? 

23. This good news arrived yesterday. 

24. The first carriage contained four persons. 

25. A large black dog carried the basket. 

26. The plowman homeward plods his weary way. 

27. The cold November rain is falling dismally. 

28. To and fro and in and out the wan stars danced 
between. 

29. Gayly the troubadour 

Touched his guitar. 

30. The cock his crested helmet bent 

And down his querulous challenge sent. 

47. Modifying Phrases. Compare the modifiers 
in the following expressions: 

(1) Strong men. 

(2) Men of great strength. 

(3) Remain there. 

(4) Remain in that place. 

In (1) the modifier of "men" is a single word, 
"strong"; in (2) it is a group of words, "of great 
strength," having the force of the single word 
"strong." 



66 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

In (3) "remain" is modified by the single word 
"there"; in (4) the group of words "in that place" 
is used instead of the single word "there." - 

Does either of these groups of words used as a 
single word ("of great strength," "in that place") 
contain a subject and a predicate? 

A group of related words used as part of a sentence, 
and containing neither subject nor predicate, is 
called a Phrase. 

If the phrase is used as a modifier, it is called a 
Modifying Phrase. 

Definition. A phrase is a group of related words 
containing neither subject nor predicate and used 
as part of a sentence. 

Definition. A modifying phrase is a phrase used 
as a modifier. 

Other examples of modifying phrases are: 

Phrase. 

He stayed at home. 
Phrase. 



Stunned by the sound , he lay unconscious. 
Phrase. 



Having finished his work, John went home. 
48. Punctuation. Phrases that might be omitted, 



OF MODIFIERS 67 

or that interrupt the natural movement of the 
sentence, are usually set off by commas. Thus : 

(1) Mary, faithful to her promise, returned soon. 

(2) Hearing a shout, she ran to the door. 

(3) It is mind, after all, which does the work of the w T orld. 

Exercise 37 

Narrow the meaning of the following words by 
adding to them Modifying Phrases: 

1. Clouds . 5. News . 9. Sit . 

2. A ride . 6. Wind . 10. Write , 

3. A house . 7. He went . 11. The fox ran . 

4. Boats . 8. He walked .12. Ships sail . 

Exercise 38 

Make a list of the Phrases in the following sentences 
and opposite each write the word which it modifies: 

i. June is the month of roses. 

2. Boys like stories of adventure. 

3. The minister lives near the church. 

4. He advanced to the council table. 

5. The boat was hurled violently against the cliff. 

6. The path in the woods was overgrown with weeds. 

7. The wisdom of the ancients is found in their writings. 

8. The town is built on the banks of a stream in the 
midst of a fine farming region. 

9. The government of the people, for the people, and 
by the people, stands unshaken. 

10. Here they noticed round his neck 
A scarf of red and yellow stripes. 



68 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

Exercise 39 

Rewrite the following sentences, substituting single 
words for the Phrases: 

i. The banks of the river were steep. 

2. We are going away in the morning, 

3. The horses belonging to us are lame. 

4. They cannot be driven with speed or to a distance. 

5. The coachman thinks they will be well in a short time. 

6. The boys of England play cricket. 

7. A house of brick stood in that place. 

8. She was without a penny. 

9. We will meet you at some place. 

10. That steamer brought a thousand emigrants from 
Italy. 

Exercise 40 

1. Change the following words into equivalent 
Phrases, and use the Phrases in sentences of your own 
making: 

1. Successful. 5. Beautiful. 9. Homeward. 

2. Speedy. 6. Instantly. 10. Now. 

3. Beneficial. 7. Powerful. 11. Then. 

4. American. 8. Here. 12. Carefully. 

2. Write jive sentences containing Modifying 
Phrases. 

Exercise 41 

Analyze the following sentences so as to show the 
Modifying Phrases: 

1. We sped the time with stories old. 



OF MODIFIERS 69 

Model for Oral Analysis. A declarative sentence. 
The complete subject is "We." The predicate is "sped the 
time with stories old," which contains the verb "sped" and 
the object "time." The verb "sped" is modified by the phrase 
"with stories old." The object "time" is modified by "the." 

Model for Written Analysis: 

S. V. o. 

We sped time 

I with stories (the 



[old 

2. A basket of fruit stood on the table. 

3. Mercy is enthroned in the hearts of kings. 

4. The borrower is servant to the lender. 

5. They pitched their tent on the river bank. 

6. I shall go to the city by the first train in the morning. 

7. A comfortable old age is the reward of a well-spent 
youth. 

8. Pins were first made by machinery in New York, in 
i835- 

9. The author of "The Eve of St. Agnes" was born in 
a stable. 

10. The first submarine telegraph was laid in New York 
Harbor in 1842. 

11. Glass windows were introduced into England in the 
eighth century. 

12. Icebergs fall into the ocean from Arctic glaciers, and 
drift slowly toward the south. 

13. The winter palace of the Czar of Russia is lighted by 
twelve thousand electric lamps. 

14. General Toral, hemmed in by the American army, 
surrendered Santiago to General Shafter. 1 



See the examples on page 66. 



70 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

15. Flocks of birds, wheeling round the lighthouse and 
blinded by the light, dashed themselves to death against 
the glass. 1 

16. We piled with care our nightly stack 
Of wood against the chimney back. 

17. The moon, above the eastern wood, 
Shone at its full. 

18. Down in the green and shady bed 
A modest violet grew. 

19. Two robin redbreasts built their nest 
Within a hollow tree. 

20. Unwarmed by any sunset light 
The gray day darkened into night. 1 

49. Modifying Clauses. Compare the modifiers 
in the following sentences: 

(1) She met a girl with blue eyes. 

(2) She met a girl whose eyes were blue. 

(3) Learn in youth. 

(4) Learn while you are young. 

In (1) the word "girl" is modified by the phrase 
"with blue eyes." In (2) it is modified by the group 
of words "whose eyes were blue," which is not a 
phrase, because it contains a subject ("whose eyes") 
and a predicate ("were blue"). 

In (3) the word "learn" is modified by the phrase 

1 See the examples on page 66. 



OF MODIFIERS 71 

"in youth" ; in (4) in place of the phrase "in youth," 
we have a group of words containing a subject 
("you") and a predicate ("are young"). 

A group of words containing a subject and a 
predicate and used as part of a sentence is called a 
Clause. 

If the clause is used as a modifier it is called a 
Modifying Clause. 

Definition. A clause is a group of words contain- 
ing a subject and a predicate and used as part of a 
sentence. 

Definition. A modifying clause is a clause used 
as a modifier. 

Other examples of clauses are: 

Modifying Clause Principal Clause 



// it rains, we cannot go. 

Principal Clause Modifying Clause 



They started when the sun rose. 

Subject Clause 



Whether he will come is uncertain. 

Modifying Clause Object Clause 



He that is giddy thinks the world turns round. 

Phrases and clauses are alike in being groups of 
related words used as parts of sentences. They differ 



72 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

in this : a clause contains a subject and a predicate, 
a phrase does not. 

50. Punctuation of Clauses. Clauses should 
usually be set off by commas. Thus: 

When I was a bachelor, I lived by myself. 
Water, which is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, is a 
necessity of life. 

Exception. When the clause is very short, or necessary to 
the meaning, it is usually not set off by commas. Thus: 
"Make hay while the sun shines" ; "The pursuit did not cease 
until the thief was caught" ; "Water that is stagnant is un- 
wholesome." 

Note. The use or omission of the comma is often a matter 
of judgment, to be determined by the requirements of clear- 
ness. For instance, in the short sentence, "Whatever is, is 
right," the comma is used to show that the first "is" must 
be taken with what precedes it. In the short sentence, "Just 
as I awoke, thexlock struck six," the comma is used to guard 
the reader against taking "the clock" as the object of 
"awoke." The comma shows that "awoke" ends a clause. 

Exercise 42 

Narrow the meaning of the following words by 
adding to them Modifying Clauses, and indicate the 
subject and the predicate in each Clause: 

i. Men . 5. Those . 9. The ground is 

2. Children . 6. He came . wet . 

3. The train . 7. Stay . 10. The brook 

4. The book . 8. Make hay . is deep. 



OF MODIFIERS 73 

Exercise 43 

Copy the Modifying Clauses in the following 
sentences, tell what they modify, and underline the 
subject and the predicate of each Clause: 

i. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. 

2. A book is a friend whose face never changes. 

3. They lived on a hill which overlooked the moor. 

4. They fought because they believed in the justice of 
their cause. 

5. Nature never did betray the heart that loved her. 

6. When Pandora raised the lid of the box, the house 
grew dark and dismal. 

7. He prayeth best who loveth best. 
All things both great and small. 

8. Robert of Lincoln's Quaker wife 

Broods in the grass while her husband sings. 

9. That a soft answer turneth away wrath has often been 
proved. 

10. When the ostrich gets tired, it runs from side to side, 
or in a curve. 

Exercise 44 

Rewrite the following sentences, substituting phrases 
or single words for Modifying Clauses: 

1. Wherever he went, he was welcome. 

2. Things that are beautiful are ennobling. 

3. Boys that may be trusted are easily found. 

4. A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid. 

5. Philadelphia stands where the Schuylkill joins the 
Delaware. 



74 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

Exercise 45 

Rewrite the following sentences, changing the itali- 
cized words and phrases into Clauses: 

i. He listened to her every word. 

2. She has a walking doll. 

3. After dinner we are going for a picnic. 

4. At noon they go home for luncheon. 

5. An honest man never lies. 

Exercise 46 

1. Change the following words and phrases into 
equivalent Clauses, and use the Clauses in sentences of 
your own making: 

1. Leafless. 5. After sunset. 

2. Your. 6. At low tide. 

3. Industrious. 7. At noon. 

4. Wise. 8. By moonlight. 

2. Write two sentences containing Modifying 
Clauses. 

Exercise 47 

1. Write a sentence in which the subject is modified 
by single Words; one in which it is modified by a 
Phrase; one in which it is modified by a Clause. 

2. Write a sentence in which the verb is modified 
7 ?y single Words; one in which it is modified by a 
Phrase; one in which it is modified by a Clause. 



OF MODIFIERS 75 

Exercise 48 1 

Tell whether the following groups of related words 
are Phrases or Clauses: 

i. How he got home. 

2. Made by the Indians. 

3. To tell the truth. 

4. Darkness coming on. 

5. Whether he is ready. 

6. Standing by the door. 

7. Ignorant of his duty. 

8. Having struck twelve. 

9. Before leaving the city. 

10. To better his condition. 

11. Having made his fortune. 

12. Before we leave the city. 

13. That you have wronged me. 

14. The train having started. 

15. Having lowered the bridge. 

16. Where Shakespeare was born. 

17. Busied with public affairs. 

18. Till on dry land he lights. 

19. Where the gray birches wave. 

20. The bridge having been lowered. 

21. Before he had lowered the bridge. 

22. As soon as the bridge was lowered. 

23. The left wing having been repulsed. 

24. Where'er the navy spreads her canvas wings. 

25. Doomed for a certain time to walk the night. 



1 To the Teacher. This formal exercise is intended for pupils who 
are slow to distinguish phrases and clauses. 



76 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

Exercise 49 

Analyze the following sentences so as to show the 
Modifying Clauses: 

i . He lay where he fell. 

Model for Oral Analysis. A declarative sentence. 
The complete subject is "He." The predicate is "lay where 
he fell." The predicate consists of the verb "lay" modified 
by the clause "where he fell." 

Model for Written Analysis: 

S. V. 

He lay 

[where he fell 

Note. Clauses, and some Phrases, are often most conveniently 
diagrammed as units, without breaking them up into their funda- 
mental parts. See Note to Teacher, page 63. 

2. A glutton lives that he may eat. 

3. Where the bee sucks, there suck I. 

4. Just as I awoke, the clock struck six. 

5. The evil that men do lives after them. 

6. God helps those who help themselves. 

7. Blessed is he that considereth the poor. 

8. The task which you have to do is easy. 

9. A temperate man eats that he may live. 

10. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 

1 1 . They that govern most make least noise. 

12. My eyes make pictures when they are shut. 

13. The city to which I refer is Constantinople. 

14. When the heart stops beating, life stops too. 



OF MODIFIERS 77 

15. People who live in glass houses must not throw stones. 

16. Rex found a young robin, which had fallen from its 
nest. 

17. The average age of those who enter college is seventeen. 

18. Theman who wanted to see you went away an hour ago. 

19. The fur which now warms a monarch once warmed a 
bear. 

20. He that loses his conscience has nothing that is worth 
keeping. 

21. Where the carcass is, there will the eagles be gathered 
together. 

22. Kindness is the golden chain by which society is 
bound together. 

23. The moon, that once was round and full, 
Is now a silver boat. 

24. My heart leaps up when I behold 
A rainbow in the sky. 

25. He who ascends to mountain tops shall find 

The loftiest peaks most wrapped in clouds and snow. 

51. Modifying Clauses Classified. The principal 
ideas expressed by modifying clauses are the fol- 
lowing: 

(1) Description: The rope, which was old, snapped. 

(2) Time: He started when the sun rose. 

(3) Place: Wherever I went was my poor dog Tray. 

(5) Condition: Rob will go if Ethel goes. 

(6) Concession: Though pain is not the greatest evil, yet 
it is an evil. 

(7) Cause: I came because you called me. 



78 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

(8) Purpose : A glutton lives that he may eat. 

(9) Degree: Ralph is stronger than Katherine [is]. 
(10) Result: I am so tired that I cannot stand. 

Exercise 50 

Tell what idea is expressed by each of the Modifying 
Clauses in Exercise 49. 

52. Indirect Objects. Compare the following 
sentences : 

(a) Jack gave a penny. 

(b) Jack gave me a penny. 

(c) Father bought Jack a ball. 

In (a) and (b) "Jack" is the subject, "gave" is 
the verb, and "penny" is the object. The word 
"me" in the second sentence denotes the person 
to whom Jack gave the penny. In (c) "Father" is 
the subject and "Jack" denotes the person for whom 
Father bought the ball. 

A word used to denote the person or thing to or 
for whom something is done is called an Indirect 
Object. 

If we change the position of "me" and "Jack" in 
sentences (b) and (c) we must use the words "to" 
or "for," as: 

"Jack gave a penny to me. 
"Father bought a ball for J achy 

In these sentences "me" and "Jack" are no longer 
indirect objects, but parts of phrases. 



OF MODIFIERS 79 

Definition. An indirect object is a word used to 
denote the person or thing to or for whom something 
is done. 

Other examples of indirect objects are: 

Mother bought Alice a doll. 
She made Ruth a new dress. 

53. Caution. Not every word answering the 
question u to whom or what?" or "for whom or what?" 
is an indirect object. For example, the italicized 
words in the following sentences are not indirect 
objects: "Mother went to town and bought me a 
doll for a dollar." 

How are these words used? 

The verbs "ask" and "teach" take two substantives, one 
in a relation sometimes expressed by a preposition: as, "He 
asked me a question"; "He asked a question of me"; 
"My father taught me French." In the first and third 
sentences, me is a direct object, and question and French may 
be called Secondary Objects. 

Exercise 51 

Make a list of the Indirect Objects in the following 
sentences: 

i. Will you do me a favor? 

2. He paid the men their wages. 

3. Give me liberty, or give me death. 

4. Riches certainly make themselves wings. 

5. Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice. 



8o SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

6. Nature teaches beasts to know their friends. 

7. Owe no man anything, but to love one another, 

8. The God who gave us life gave us liberty at the same 
time. 

9. If thine enemy hunger, feed him; if he thirst, give him 
drink. 

10. Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul! 
As the swift seasons roll! 

Exercise 52 

1. With the following verbs form five sentences, each 
containing an Indirect Object: 

bring get pay send tell 

2. Change your sentences so that Indirect Objects 
that were single words shall now be expressed by 
phrases. 

54. Appositives. Compare the following sen- 
tences : 

Paul was beheaded in the reign of Nero. 
Paul, the apostle, was beheaded in the reign of Nero, 
eror of Rome. 



In the second sentence, you observe, the meaning 
of "Paul" and of "Nero" is made clearer by setting 
next to each of them by way of explanation another 
name for the same person or thing. 

A name set next to another name by way of ex- 
planation, and denoting the same person or thing, 
is called an Appositive (Latin, "set next to"). 



OF MODIFIERS 81 

The appositive or explanatory name is said to be 
in Apposition with the word which it explains. 

Definition. An appositive is a name set next to 
another name by way of explanation, and denoting 
the same person or thing. 

In the definition of an appositive, the words "denoting 
the same person or thing" are needed to distinguish an 
appositive from a possessive modifier like "John's" in the 
expression "John's hat"; or from an explanatory word like 
"Texas" in the expression "El Paso, Texas." 

54a. Punctuation of Appositives. An appositive, 
with its modifiers, is set off by commas unless it is 
very closely connected in thought with the word 
which it explains. 

Exercise 53 

Make a list of the words in Apposition in the follow- 
ing sentences : 

i. My sister Elizabeth is to go abroad soon. 

2. Mabel, his daughter, came into the room. 

3. My dog, a fine collie, must be kept tied. 

4. Blessings on thee, barefoot boy! 

5. John Stuart Mill, the philosopher, learned the Greek 
alphabet when he was three years old. 

6. The Queen of Scots, Mary Stuart, was beheaded by 
order of her cousin, Queen Elizabeth. 

7. We were guided by our old acquaintance, the trapper. 

8. Herod, the Roman governor, beheaded John the 
Baptist. 

9. The moon, that lovely lantern of the night, outshone 
the fire-fly's light. 



82 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

10. "Pray, who are you, beautiful creature?" inquired 
Pandora. 

ii. Behold her, yon solitary Highland lass. 

12. The stranger came, a timid suppliant, and asked to 
lie down on the red man's bear-skin. 

13. Then Iagoo, the great boaster, 
Made a bow for Hiawatha. 

14. By the shining Big-Sea- Water, 
Stood the wigwam of Nokomis, 
Daughter of the Moon, Nokomis. 

15. This was the wedding morn of Priscilla, the Puritan 
maiden. 

Exercise 54 

Make a list of the words in Apposition in the follow- 
ing sentences: 

1. Hail, holy light! offspring of heav'n. 

2. The meek ey'd Morn appears, mother of dews. 

3. Come, gentle Spring! ethereal Mildness! come. 

4. The postman comes, the herald of a noisy world. 

5. Labor to keep alive in your breast that little spark 
of celestial fire — conscience. 

6. Let not women's weapons, water drops, 
Stain my man's cheeks! 

7. A famous man is Robin Hood, 
The English ballad singer's joy. 

8. Aurora now, fair daughter of the dawn, 
Sprinkled with rosy light the dewy lawn. 



OF MODIFIERS 83 

9. Benedict Belief ontaine, the wealthiest farmer of 
Grand- Pre, 
Dwelt on his goodly acres. 

10. Silently, one by one, in the infinite meadows of heaven, 
Blossomed the lovely stars, the forget-me-nots of the 

angels. 

11. The spacious firmament on high, 
With all the blue ethereal sky, 

And spangled heavens, a shining frame, 
Their great Original proclaim. 

12. She dwelt among the untrodden ways 

Beside the springs of Dove — 
A maid whom there were none to praise 
And very few to love. 

Exercise 55 

Write Jive sentences containing A p positives. 

55. Modifiers of Modifiers. Thus far we have 
considered chiefly the modifiers of subject, verb, and 
complement. But, as you have already seen, 
modifiers are themselves often modified, and we 
find phrases attached to phrases, clauses attached 
to clauses. Thus: 

(a) Fanny sings very well. 

Subject Verb 

Fanny sings 

well. 

| very 



84 



SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 



(b) The widow of the fisherman who was drowned lives in 
a cottage by the sea. 



Subject 

widow 



Verb 
lives 



The 

of fisherman 



in cottage 



the 

who was drowned 



a 

by sea 



the 



(c) This is the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house 
that Jack built. 



•*- » 

This 



> 

is 



u a> 

.S.-H. 
"81 

rat 
the 
that ate malt 



the 
that lay 



in house 



the 

that Jack built. 



Note. In diagramming long sentences, it is often suf- 
ficient and usually more convenient to treat subordinate 
clauses as units, without breaking them up into subject, 
verb, and complement. Modifiers may be shown as modifiers, 
if desired; but a diagram which is too complicated, defeats 
its own purpose. The same remarks apply to some phrases, 
especially if the sentence is long. 



OF MODIFIERS 85 

Exercise 56 

Analyze the following sentences: 

i. Three wives sat up in the lighthouse tower 
And trimmed the lamps as the sun went down. 

Model for Oral Analysis. The subject is "Three 
wives." The simple subject is "wives," modified by "three." 
There are two predicates, "sat up in the lighthouse tower" 
and "trimmed the lamps as the sun went down." The 
verb in the first predicate is "sat," a verb of complete predi- 
cation, modified by "up" and the phrase "in the lighthouse 
tower." In the second predicate the verb is "trimmed," 
with "lamps" as object complement. "Trimmed" is modified 
by the time clause "as the sun went down," and "lamps" is 
modified by "the." 

Model for Written Analysis: 

S. V. o. 

sat 
up 
in the lighthouse tower 



wives 



Three 



and 

trim med lamps 

as the sun went down. I the 



2. Bright the lamps shone o'er fair women and brave men. 

3. Animals that live in the Arctic regions among snow and 
ice have white fur. 

4. Near the "bonny Doon" stands the little clay-built 
cottage in which Robert Burns was born. 

5. Rip Van Winkle assisted at the children's sports, 
made their playthings, and told them long stories of ghosts, 
witches, and Indians. 



86 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

6. Close beside her, faintly moaning, fair and young a 

soldier lay 
Torn with shot and pierced with lances, bleeding 
slow his life away. 

7. Between the andirons' straggling feet 
The mug of cider simmered slow. 

8. The house dog on his paws outspread 
Laid to the fire his drowsy head. 

9. Sharply clashing horn on horn, 
Impatient down the stanchion rows 
The cattle shake their walnut bows. 



10. 



A little nonsense now and then 
Is relished by the wisest men. 



11. I stood on the bridge at midnight, 
As the clocks were striking the hour. 

12. Forth into the forest straightway 
All alone walked Hiawatha 
Proudly, with his bows and arrows. 

13. Whene'er a noble deed is wrought, 
Whene'er is spoken a noble thought, 
Our hearts, in glad surprise, 

To higher levels rise. 

14. In my study I see in the lamplight, 

Descending the broad hall stair, 
Grave Alice and laughing Allegra 
And Edith with golden hair. 



OF MODIFIERS 



87 



Exercise 57 

(General Review) 
Analyze the following sentences: 



1. I came to a shady spot where the grass was wet with 
the dew that still lay upon it. 

Model for Oral Analysis. The subject of this sen- 
tence is "I." The predicate is the rest of the sentence. The 
main verb in the predicate is "came," a verb of complete 
predication, modified by the phrase "to a shady spot." 
"Spot" is modified by "a" and "shady" and the clause of 
place, "where the grass was wet," in which "the grass" is 
the subject, "was" is the verb, and "wet" is an attribute 
complement. "Wet" is modified by the phrase "with the 
dew." "Dew" is modified by "the" and the descriptive 
clause "that still lay upon it," in which "that" is the subject 
and "lay" is the verb, modified by "still" and the phrase 
"upon it." 



Model for Written Analysis: 
S. V. 
I came 

[to spot . 






a 

shady 

where grass was wet 




|the with dew 


iy 




the 
that Ij 






upon it 
still 



88 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

2. Nearly all dogs like the water. 

3. The man in the moon came down too soon. 

4. Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth. 

5. Trust that man in nothing who has not a conscience 
in everything. 

6. When I look upon the tombs of the great every 
emotion of envy dies in me. 

7. Pompeii was suddenly buried beneath a shower of 
ashes from Mount Vesuvius. 

8. People will not look forward to posterity who never 
look backward to their ancestors. 

9. Books that you may carry to the fire and hold readily 
in your hand are the most useful after all. 

10. The deep cave among the rocks on the hillside was 
long the secret home of a family of foxes. 

11. In Holland the stork is protected by law, because it 
eats the frogs and worms that would injure the dikes. 

II 

12. The water of our brook, after flowing under the 
bridge and through the meadow, falls over little precipices 
of rocks till it reaches the level of the lake, fifty feet below. 

13. When he was a boy, Franklin, who afterward became 
a distinguished statesman and philosopher, learned his trade 
in the printing office of his brother, who published a paper in 
Boston. 

14. At the doorway of his wigwam 
Sat the ancient Arrow-maker, 
In the land of the Dacotahs, 
Making arrowheads of jasper. 

15. At his side, in all her beauty, 
Sat the lovely Minnehaha, 
Plaiting mats of flags and rushes. 



OF MODIFIERS 89 

16, Soon o'er the yellow fields, in silent and mournful 

procession, 
Came from the neighboring hamlets and farms the 

Acadian women, 
Driving in ponderous wains their household goods to 

the seashore. 

17. In the Old Colony days, in Plymouth, the land of the 

Pilgrims, 
To and fro in a room of his simple and primitive 

dwelling, 
Clad in doublet and hose, and boots of Cordovan 

leather, 
Strode, with a martial air, Miles Standish, the Puritan 

captain. 

18. A king sat on the rocky brow 
Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis. 

19. Shut in from all the world without, 
We sat the clean- winged hearth about, 
Content to let the north wind roar 

In baffled rage at pane and door, 
While the red logs before us beat 
The frost line back with tropic heat. 

20. That orbed maiden with white fire laden, 
Whom mortals call the moon, 

Glides glimmering o'er nry* fleece-like floor, 
By the midnight breezes strewn. 

21. When I see kings lying by those who deposed them; 
when I consider rival wits placed side by side, or the holy 
men that divided the world with their contests and disputes, 
I reflect with sorrow and astonishment on the little com- 
petitions, factions, and debates of mankind. — Addison: 
"Visit to Westminster Abbey." 



* A cloud is supposed to be speaking. 



CHAPTER VI 

OF SUBSTANTIVE PHRASES AND CLAUSES 

In the last chapter we learned that groups of 
words are often used with the force of single words ; 
and that such groups are Phrases if they contain 
neither subject nor predicate, Clauses if they do 
contain a subject and a predicate. The illustrative 
sentences and the exercises contained many such 
groups used as modifiers. We are now to learn that 
phrases and clauses are also used as subjects, com- 
plements, and ap positives. Such phrases and clauses 
are called Substantive Phrases and Substantive 
Clauses. 

56. Phrases as Subjects. Examine the subject 
of each of the following sentences, and, if possible, 
pick out the single word that may be used as the 
simple subject: 

Subject Verb Complement 



Tom's being there saved the house. 

To jump across the chasm was impossible. 

You observe that no single word can be taken 
alone as the simple subject. The assertion is made 
about the idea expressed by the entire phrase used 
as a substantive (27). 

90 



OF SUBSTANTIVE PHRASES AND CLAUSES 91 

Exercise 58 

Complete the following sentences by adding assertions 
about the ideas expressed by the Substantive Phrases: 

1. To die for one's country . 5. To write a story . 

2. Skating on the pond . 6. Chopping wood . 

3. Writing compositions . 7. To find a horseshoe . 

4. Playing football . 8. To tell a lie . 

Exercise 59 

Make sentences with the following predicates by 
filling the blanks with Phrases used as Subjects: 

1. is dishonorable 5. was great fun. 

2. annoys me. 6. would make you laugh. 

3. is bad luck. 7. is impossible. 

4. is hard work. 8. Does make you tired? 

57. Phrases as Complements. Examine each 
of the following complements, and determine whether 
any single word may be taken as the complement 
of the verb: 

Subject Verb Direct Object 



He despised telling a lie. 

I like to go to the country. 

Subject Verb Subjective Complement 



That is out of bounds. 



9 2 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

Subject Verb Direct Object Objective Complement 



They danced themselves out of breath. 
They kept us in suspense 

From this it is clear that phrases are often used 
substantively as complements of the verb. 

Exercise 60 

Complete the following sentences by adding ideas 
expressed by Phrases, and tell whether the Phrases are 
used as Objects, Subjective Complements, or Objective 
Complements: 

i. Our house is . 5. What I want is — . 

2. We intend . 6. Washington forced the British — . 

3. He made us . 7. The Alps are . 

4. He seemed . 8. I like . 

Exercise 61 

In the following sentences copy the Phrases, and 
tell how they are used: 

1. Study to be quiet. 

2. The vessels were of oak. 

3. Out of sight is out of mind. 

4. I did not enjoy crossing the ocean. 

5. The price of wisdom is above rubies. 

6. A man should learn to govern himself. 

7. To break a promise is a breach of honor. 

8. Giving to the poor is lending to the Lord. 

9. This morning Carrie seemed in good spirits. 

10. Your writing that letter so neatly secured the position. 



OF SUBSTANTIVE PHRASES AND CLAUSES 93 

Exercise 62 

Write a sentence containing a Phrase used as Sub- 
ject; as Object; as Subjective Complement; as Objective 
Complement. 

58. Clauses as Subjects. Examine the following 
sentences, and consider whether any single word 
can be named as the subject. 

Consider, also, whether the groups of words ex- 
pressing the subject are phrases or clauses. Give 
the reason for your answer: 

Subject Predicate 



What they say is not to the point. 
That you have wronged me doth appear in this. 
Whether I can go is uncertain. 

From this it is clear that a clause may be used 
as the subject of a sentence. 

Exercise 63 

Make sentences by adding assertions about the ideas 
expressed by the following Clauses used as subjects: 

i. What he wants . 

2. Whether you go or stay . 



3. That two and two make four 

4. Whom it belongs to . 

5. What he does . 

6. Where he went . 



7. When we shall start — 

8. "Charge fcr the guns" 



94 



SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 



Exercise 64 

Fill the blanks with Clauses used as Subjects: 



is unknown, 
was foretold, 
pleases me. 
is doubtful. 



is of no importance, 
will never be discovered, 
were his words, 
has been proved. 



59. Clauses as Complements. Examine the fol- 
lowing sentences, and consider whether any single 
word can be named as the complement. Consider, 
also, whether the groups of words used as comple- 
ments are phrases or clauses. 



Subject Verb 



taught 
asked 
showed 
doubt 



Direct Object 




Subject 



Verb 



This is 

Her chief fault was 

He seemed 

This is 



that the earth moves, 
who I was. 
where she had put it. 
whether I can go. 

Subjective Complement 

what I want, 
that she would not read, 
what he pretended to be. 
where the arbutus grows. 





Object Objective Complement 



me 



what I am. 



From this it is clear that clauses may be used 
as complements. 



OF SUBSTANTIVE PHRASES AND CLAUSES 95 

Exercise 65 

Fill the blanks with Clauses used as Complements, 
and tell whether they are used as Objects or Subjective 
Complements: 

i. Do you know ? 6. Have you heard ? 

2. I fear . 7. The question is . 



3. My hope is . 8. Things are seldom 

4. We saw . 9. Let us ask . 

5. His cry was . 10. I think . 



60. Clauses as Appositives. Examine the fol- 
lowing sentence : 

The Arabs have a superstition that the stork has a human 
heart. 

Here the clause "that the stork has a human 
heart' 7 is in apposition (54) with the word " super- 
stition." 

From this we see that clauses may be used as 
appositives. 

Exercise 66 

Fill the blanks with Clauses in Apposition with the 
italicized words: 

1 . The report is untrue. 

2. The news has just come. 

3. We have just learned the fact . 

4. I cherish the hope . 

5. He made the assertion . 



g6 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

Exercise 67 

Copy the Clauses in Apposition in the following 
sentences and write opposite each the word which it 
explains: 

i. The popular idea that water is purified by freezing is 
a mistake. 

2. Greater love hath no man than this, that a man lay 
down his life for his friends. 

3. Dr. Watts's saying that birds in their little nests 
agree is far from being true. 

4. The proverb "Never cross a bridge till you come to it" 
is old and of excellent wit. 

5. Books have this advantage over travel, that they 
convey information from remote times. 

6. It was a maxim with Bentley that no man was ever 
written out of reputation but by himself . 

7. The Declaration of Independence announced the truth 
that all power comes from the people. 

8. In the armory of Venice is this inscription: "Happy 
is that city which in time of peace thinks of war." 

9. The theory that the earth revolves around the sun 
was not generally accepted till after the invention of the 
telescope. 

10. Know then this truth (enough for man to know), — 
"Virtue alone is happiness below." 

Exercise 68 

Write a sentence containing a Clause used as a 
Subject; as bject; as Subjective Complement; as an 
Appositive. 



OF SUBSTANTIVE PHRASES AND CLAUSES 97 

Exercise 69 

(Review) 

Copy the Clauses in the following sentences and tell 
how they are used: 

I. 

1. Ask if you may go too. 

2. Life is what we make it. 

3. What he does is well done. 

4. What you want is not here. 

5. Take whichever you chooose. 

6. Show us where you found it. 

7. This is not what I asked for. 

8. What he promises, he will do. 

9. No one can tell how this will end. 

10. A servant must do what he is told. 

11. No man can lose what he never had. 

12. "I am going a-milking, sir," she said. 

13. Whether you go or stay is of little account. 

14. The village all declared how much he knew. 

15. He acknowledged that he had made a mistake. 

16. Whatever is worth doing at all, is worth doing well. 

17. Reputation is what we seem; character is what we are. 

18. Lawrence's dying words were, "Don't give up the 
ship." 

19. That the earth is round is proved by the shape of its 
shadow. 

20. Columbus did not know that he had discovered a 
continent. 



98 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

II. 

21. What a man puts into his head cannot be stolen 
from him. 

22. The war cry of the Crusaders was, "It is the will of 
God!" 

23. "Where is Abel, thy brother?" was God's question 
to guilty Cain. 

24. One of the many objections to betting is that it 
demoralizes the character. 

25. The world will not inquire who you are. It will ask, 
"What can you do?" 

26. Philosophers are still debating whether the will has 
any control over dreams. 

27. The explanation of the apparent daily motion of the 
sun and stars is that the earth spins like, a top. 

28. I dreamt that I dwelt in marble halls, 
With vassals and serfs at my side. 

29. Time will teach thee soon the truth, 
There are no birds in last year's nest. 

30. Percy's shout was fainter heard, 
" My merry men, fight on! " 

To the Teacher. Phrases and clauses used with prepositions are 
treated in Part II. 



CHAPTER VII 

OF INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 

61. Independent Elements Defined. Examine 
the following sentence: 

I am going a-milking, sir. 

Here, you observe, the subject is "I"; the predicate 
is "am going a-milking." The word "sir" belongs 
neither to the subject nor to the predicate, and 
therefore is not really a part of the sentence. It is 
merely attached to the sentence to show to whom 
it is addressed. 

A word or group of words attached to a sentence 
without forming a grammatical part of it is called 
an Independent Element. 

Definition. An independent element is a word 
or group of words attached to a sentence without 
forming a grammatical part of it. 

62. Vocatives. In "I am going a-milking, sir," 
the independent element "sir" indicates the person 
to whom the sentence is addressed. 

An independent element used to indicate the 
person or thing addressed is called a Vocative 
(Latin voco, "I call"). 1 

J The Report of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature 
suggests the term Nominative of Address, which may be substituted for 
Vocative, if desired. 

99 



ioo SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

Definition, A vocative is an independent word 
attached to a sentence to indicate the person or 
thing addressed. 

Care must be taken not to confound vocatives with the 
subjects of imperative sentences. In "Come on, boys/' 
"boys " is a vocative. The subject of the command "come 
on" is omitted as usual; if expressed, it would be "you," 
as, "Come [you] on, boys." 

Exercise 70 

Make a list of the Vocative words in the following 
sentences: 

i. Drink, pretty creature, drink. 

2. Give me of your balm, O fir tree. 

3. Mr. President, my object is peace. 

4. Thou, too, sail on, O ship of State. 

5. Ye crags and peaks, I'm with you once again. 

6. Wave your tops, ye pines, in sign of worship. 

7. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll! 

8. Sir, I would rather be right than be President. 

9. My son, if sinners entice thee, consent thou not. 

10. There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, 
Than are dreamt of in your philosophy. 

63. Punctuation of Vocatives. A vocative and 
its modifiers should be set off by commas, thus: 
"Where are you going, my pretty maid?" 



OF INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 101 

Exercise 71 

Write from dictation the sentences in Exercise jo. 
64. Exclamations . Examine the following sentence : 
What! are you going? 

Here the subject is "you"; the predicate is "are 
going." "What" is an independent word attached 
to the sentence as an outcry or expression of sudden 
feeling. 

A word or group of words used as an outcry or 
expression of sudden f eeling is called an Exclamation. 

Definition. An exclamation is a word or group 
of words used to express sudden or strong feeling. 

Exercise 72 

Make a list of the independent elements in the fol- 
lowing sentences, and tell whether they are Vocatives 
or Exclamations: 

i. Oh, hurry, hurry! 

2. Ah! there they come. 

3. Hurrah! our work is done. 

4. The boy, oh! where was he? 

5. Poor man! he never came back. 

6. Mortimer! who talks of Mortimer? 

7. Ba, ba, black sheep, have you any wool? 

8. Ha! laugh'st thou, Lochiel, my vision to scorn? 

9. Alas! poor creature! how she must have suffered! 
10. Ay me! what perils do environ 

The man that meddles with cold iron! 



102 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

65. Punctuation of Exclamations. An exclama- 
tion should be followed by an exclamation point (!), 
thus: "Pshaw! there goes the belL' , 

Exercise 73 

Write from dictation the sentences in Exercise 72. 

66. Parenthetical Expressions. Examine the fol- 
lowing sentence: 

This, to tell the truth, was a mistake. 

Here the subject is "This"; the predicate is "was 
a mistake." "To tell the truth" is a phrase, forming 
no part of the sentence (which is complete without 
it), but attached to it as a sort of comment or side 
remark. 

A phrase or clause attached to a sentence as a sort 
of side remark or comment is called Parenthetical 
(Greek "put in beside"). 

Definition. A parenthetical expression is one at- 
tached to a sentence as a sort of side remark. 

Exercise 74 

Point out the Parenthetical Expressions in the fol- 
lowing sentences: 

1. At all events, he did his best. 

2. In fact, there was nothing else to do. 



OF INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 103 

3. I felt, to say the least, a little nervous. 

4. Her conduct, generally speaking, was admirable. 

5. Properly speaking, there is no such thing as luck. 

6. The ship leaped, as it were, from billow to billow. 

7. To speak plainly, your manner was somewhat rude. 

8. To the best of my recollection, she was not there. 

9. Let there be no strife, I pray thee, between thee 
and me. 

10. The army of Xerxes, to put it in round numbers, 
comprised 2,500,000 persons. 

67. Punctuation of Parenthetical Expressions. 

Short parenthetical expressions are usually set off 
by commas. But if the parenthetical expression is 
long, or if there are already several commas in the 
sentence, parentheses ( ) should be used instead of 
commas, thus: "I know that in me (that is, in my 
flesh) dwelleth no good thing." 



Exercise 75 

Write from dictation the sentences in Exercise 74. 
68. Pleonasm. Examine the following sentence: 
Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me. 

Here we. have more words than enough. The 
words '#Thy rod and thy staff" name the subject of 
the thought; but the grammatical subject of the 
sentence is "they," and the predicate, "comfort me." 



104 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

It is as if we used two subjects denoting the same 
thing, thus: 



Thy rod and thy staff 1 
They " J 



comfort me 



The use of more words than are needed to express 
the thought is called Pleonasm ("more than 
enough"). 

Definition. Pleonasm is the use of more words 
than are needed to express the thought. 

Other examples of pleonasm are: 

The smith, a mighty man is he. 

My banks, they are furnished with bees. 

This construction was once very good English, 
but it is now uncommon, and as a rule should not 
be imitated. 

Exercise 76 

Write two sentences of your own with Vocatives 
attached; two with Exclamations; one, with a Paren- 
thetical Expression. 

69. Summary of the Parts of a Sentence. The 

parts of a sentence, which we have now studied, may 
be summarized as follows: 



OF INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS 



105 



Subject 

(22) 



Word (27). 
Phrase (56). 
Clause (58). 



Verb or Verb Phrase 
(27) (30) 



Subjective 

(38) 



Complements 

(36) 



Modifiers 

(43) 



Direct 
Object 

(39) 

Objective 
(40) 
Word (43, 52 
Phrase (47). 
Clause (49). 



Word (38). 
Phrase (57). 
Clause (59). 
Word (39). 
Phrase (57) 
Clause (59). 
Word (40). 
Phrase (57). 
Clause (59). 

54). 



Independent Expressions 

(61) 



Vocative (62). 
Exclamatory (64). 
Parenthetical (66). 
Pleonastic (68). 



Exercise 77 

(General Review) 

1. Reproduce from memory the preceding summary, 
omitting the numerical references. 

2. Define and illustrate each of the terms used in 
the summary. 



To the Teacher. The nominative absolute, which is independent 
in form though it is really a modifier, is treated in Part II. 



CHAPTER VIII 

OF SENTENCES AS SIMPLE, COMPLEX, AND 
COMPOUND 



With respect to meaning, sentences are classified 
as Declarative, Interrogative, or Imperative. With 
respect to form, they are either Simple, Complex, or 
Compound. 

70. Simple Sentences. Examine the following 
sentences : 

Subject Predicate 



a. The horses 

b. The horses 

and 
the cattle 



took fright, 
took fright. 



c. The horses 



d. The horses 
and 
the cattle 



took fright 

and 
ran away. 

took fright 

and 
ran away. 



Each of these sentences, you observe, contains 
only one subject and one predicate, though several 
of the subjects and predicates are compound. 

1 06 



SIMPLE, COMPLEX AND COMPOUND 107 

A sentence which contains only one subject and 
one predicate, either or both of which may be com- 
pound, is called a Simple Sentence. 

Definition. A simple sentence is a sentence con- 
taining only one subject and one predicate. 

In a simple sentence with compound subject and predi- 
cate, every verb belongs to every simple subject, and every 
simple subject belongs to every verb. 

Some grammarians hold that there are as many sentences 
or clauses in anything we say as there are verbs. According 
to them, sentences' (c) and (d) are not simple sentences, but 
two separate sentences united, with some words omitted, 
as: "The horses took fright and [the horses] ran away"; 
"The horses and the cattle took fright and [the horses and 
the cattle] ran away." 

71. Complex Sentences. Compare the following 
sentences : 

(1) I awoke. 

(2) I awoke when the clock struck five. 

You observe that the first sentence is a simple 
sentence, making a statement which stands alone, 
and it is not dependent on anything else. 

The second sentence consists of two clauses: (1) 
the clause "I awoke," which makes the principal or 
independent statement, and (2) the clause "when the 
clock struck five," which modifies the principal 
statement and is therefore subordinate to it and 
dependent on it. 

The clause making the principal statement is called 
the Principal Clause. 



108 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

A clause used as a subordinate part of a sen- 
tence, and dependent on the principal clause, is 
called a Subordinate Clause. 

A sentence containing one or more subordinate 
clauses is called a Complex Sentence (Latin, 
" woven together"). 

Definition. The principal clause in a sentence is 
the clause which makes the principal statement. 

Definition. A subordinate clause is a clause 
used as a subordinate part of a sentence. 

Definition. A complex sentence is a sentence 
containing one or more subordinate clauses. 

Two or more principal, or two or more subordinate 
clauses, of the same rank, are called Co-ordinate Clauses. 

Exercise 78 

Change the following Simple Sentences into Complex 
Sentences by changing the italicized words or phrases 
into clauses, and underline the subordinate clauses. 

i. People living in glass houses should not throw stones. 
Model: People who live in glass houses should not throw 
stones. 

2. Tell me your age. 

3. Mercury had wings on his feet. 

4. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 

5. My sister will visit us in the summer. 

6. At high tide we rowed out to the island. 

7. Audubon loved the animals near his home. 



SIMPLE, COMPLEX AND COMPOUND 109 

8. The man with the gray coat is the President. 

9. No wind could shake a house built on a rock. 

10. She was a lovely girl with charming manners. 

11. Approaching the village, 'Rip Van Winkle met a num- 
ber of people. 

72. Uses of Subordinate Clauses. Compare the 
following sentences: 

1. Galileo taught. 

2. Galileo taught whenever he could. 

3. Galileo taught that the earth moves. 

4. That the earth moves was taught by Galileo. 

5. Galileo discovered the fact that the earth moves. 

You observe that (1) is a simple sentence, making 
an independent statement. In (2) the main state- 
ment is modified by the subordinate clause "when- 
ever he could." In (3) "that the earth moves" is a 
subordinate clause used as the object of "taught." 
In (4) it is a subordinate clause used as the subject 
of "was taught by Galileo" and the principal clause is 
the entire sentence. In (5) it is a subordinate 
clause used in apposition w T ith the word "fact." 

Subordinate clauses are used as (1) modifiers, 
(2) subjects, (3) complements, and (4) appositives; 
and all clauses used as modifiers, subjects, comple- 
ments, or appositives are subordinate. 

A subordinate clause may also be used with a preposition 
(86) : as, I spoke of what Galileo taught. 



no SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

It is sometimes said that subordinate clauses can be 
recognized by the fact that they do not by themselves make 
complete sense. This is not a sure test, for: 

(i) Some subordinate clauses make complete sense by 
themselves; for example, u 'I am going a-milking, sir, 7 she 
said." Here the direct quotation is clearly the object of 
"said," and is therefore a subordinate clause; yet it makes 
complete sense by itself. 

(2) Some principal clauses cannot stand by themselves: 
for example, "As a man lives, so must he die" 

Exercise 79 

Copy the following Complex Sentences, underline 
the Subordinate Clauses, and tell how each Subordinate 
Clause is used: 

1. We went to the woods when school was over. 

Model for Written Exercise. We went to the woods 
when school was over. Modifies "went." 

2. Happy is the man that findeth wisdom. 

3. Water that is stagnant is unwholesome. 

4. When the bough breaks, the cradle will fall. 

5. He saves what he earns. 

6. Make hay while the sun shines. 

7. A book is a friend whose face never changes. 

8. He that is strong is not always brave. 

9. Tell me how old you are. 

10. That you have wronged me doth appear in this. 

1 1 . Washington had a maxim that superiors should always 
be obeyed. 



SIMPLE, COMPLEX AND COMPOUND in 

73. Compound Sentences. Examine the follow- 
ing sentences : 

The rain descended, | and | the floods came, | and | the 
winds blew. 

The way was long, | the wind was cold,| 
The minstrel was infirm and old. 

In these selections we see united into one sentence 
several clauses that are complete in themselves. 
Although closely related in thought, they could be 
separated without injury; therefore, they are In- 
dependent clauses. 

A sentence consisting of two or more independent 
clauses is called a Compound Sentence. 

Definition. A compound sentence is a sentence 
containing two or more independent clauses. 

The independent statements united in a com- 
pound sentence may have subordinate clauses 
attached to them. For example, the following 
compound sentence consists of two co-ordinate 
principal clauses, each modified by a subordinate 
clause. It is a combination of two complex sentences : 

The rain descended until the streams overflowed, | and | the 
winds blew as they had never blown before. 

74. Compound Sentences Classified. If we ex- 
amine compound sentences closely, we find that they 
are of four kinds: 



ii2 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

(i) Sentences in which the separate sayings are united 
because of a similarity of meaning or a continuation of the 
same line of thought: as, 

Fear God | and | keep his commandments. 

(2) Sentences in which the separate sayings are united 
because they stand in contrast: as, 

He ran to the station, | but | he missed the train. 
We called at the house, | but | we did not see her. 

(3) Sentences in which the separate sayings are united 
because they present thoughts between which one must 
make a choice: as, 

The book is lost | or | some one has taken it. 

(4) Sentences in which the separate sayings are united 
because they express cause and effect: as, 

Carl was tired, | therefore | he went to bed. 
Carl went to bed | for | he was tired. 

75. Connecting Words. In the sentences given 
in the last section as illustrations, the connecting 
words are "and," "but," "or," "therefore," and 
"for." These are the most common joining words 
in the four kinds of compound sentences. 

Other connectives are frequently used, such as 
"also," "moreover," "nor," "nevertheless." 

Often there are no connecting words at all, the 
connection between the clauses being indicated only 
by the punctuation. 

To tell how the separate parts of a compound 
sentence are related to one another, we must con- 
sider, not the connectives, but the meaning of the 
parts. 



SIMPLE, COMPLEX AND COMPOUND 113 

Exercise 80 

Separate the following Compound Sentences into 
their independent parts, and tell how the parts are 
related: 

I. 

i. Man proposes, but God disposes. 

Model for Oral Exercise. This is a compound sen- 
tence, containing the clauses "Man proposes" and "God 
disposes." The connecting word is "but." The independ- 
ent clauses are related by contrast. 

Model for Written Exercise. Man proposes. God 
disposes. Contrast. 

2. She must weep or she will die. 

3. They toil not, neither do they spin. 

4. It rained on Saturday, so we put off the game. 

5. He says what he means, and he means what he says. 

6. The leaves are falling;- therefore the swallows will 
soon be gone. 

7. Truly there is a tide in the affairs of men; but there is 
no gulf stream setting forever in one direction. 

8. There were gentlemen and there were seamen in the 
navy of Charles II; but the seamen were not gentlemen, 
and the gentlemen were not seamen. 

9. Meager were his looks, 

Sharp misery had worn him to the bones. 

10. A thousand years scarce serve to form a state; 
An hour may lay it in the dust. 

11. Errors, like straws, upon the surface flow; 

He who would search for pearls must dive below. 



ii4 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

II. 

12. My words fly up, my thoughts remain below; 
Words without thoughts never to heaven go. 

13. The rude sea grew civil at her song, 

And certain stars shot madly from their spheres 
To hear the sea-maid's music. 

14. But yesterday the word of Caesar might 

Have stood against the world; now lies he there, 
And none so poor to do him reverence. 

15. Doubt thou the stars are fire; 
Doubt that the sun doth move; 
Doubt truth to be a liar; 

But never doubt I love. 

16. Arms on armor clashing bray'd 
Horrible discord, and the madding wheels 
Of brazen chariots rag'd; dire was the noise 
Of conflict. 

76. Punctuation of Compound Sentences. The 

independent parts of a compound sentence should 
be separated by commas or semicolons. 

The comma is used when the independent clauses 
contain no commas and are closely related. Thus: 

The rains descended, and the floods came. 

The semicolon (;) is used when the independent 
clauses (1) contain commas, or (2) are not very 
closely related. Thus: 

(1) Mary received a doll; Charles, a top. 

(2) An hour passed on; the Turk awoke. 



SIMPLE, COMPLEX AND COMPOUND 115 



/ 



Semicolons are sometimes used instead of commas 
when the independent clauses are long. This is a 
matter of taste. 

Exercise 81 

Write from dictation the first ten sentences in 
Exercise 80. 

77. Improper Compound Sentences. Untrained 
speakers and writers sometimes unite in one com- 
pound sentence thoughts that are not related: as, 

Oliver Goldsmith was the son of a clergyman, and when 
he was young he had the smallpox. 

Such a sentence offends the taste of a cultivated 
person. There is no connection at all between the 
two facts that are mentioned, and this independence 
should be indicated by putting them in separate 
sentences. Other examples are: 

"Diggs belonged to the fifth form, and he was large for 
his age, and his clothes were always too small, and he used 
to run into debt." — From a school exercise. 

"The Acadians were a French Colony living in Acadia, in 
Canada, and in the war between France and England the 
latter sent some ships to Acadia to remove the inhabitants 
to other countries." — From a school exercise. 

Exercise 82 

(Review.) 

Tell whether the following sentences are Simple, 
Complex, or Compound. 

If Complex, tell how the subordinate clauses are 
used. 



n6 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

If Compound, tell how the independent clauses are 
related. 

I. 

i. The sun set. 

2. The sun set before the moon rose. 

3. The sun set, but the moon was shining. 

4. Words and feathers the wind carries away. 

5. Help which is long on the road is no help. 

6. A cow is a very good animal in the field; but we turn 
her out of the garden. 

7. The heavens declare the glory of God; and the firma- 
ment showeth his handiwork. 

8. The fool doth think he is wise, but the wise man 
knows himself to be a fool. 

9. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some 
have greatness thrust upon 'em. 

10. The mountains look on Marathon, 
And Marathon looks on the sea. 

11. Suspicion always haunts the guilty mind; 
The thief doth fear each bush an officer. 



II. 

12. Cowards die many times before their deaths; 
The valiant never taste of death but once. 

13. Through tattered clothes small vices do appear; 
Robes and furr'd gowns hide all. 

14. When beggars die, there are no comets seen; 

The heavens themselves blaze forth the death of 
princes. 



SIMPLE, COMPLEX AND COMPOUND 117 

15. Night's candles are burned out, and jocund day 
Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain tops. 

16. I have found out a gift for my fair; 

I have found where the wood pigeons breed. 

17. He reads much; 

He is a great observer, and he looks 
Quite through the deeds of men. 

18. This castle has a pleasant seat; the air 
Nimbly and sweetly recommends itself 
Unto our gentle senses. 

19. God moves in a mysterious way 

His wonders to perform; 
He plants his footsteps in the sea 
And rides upon the storm. 

20. Mont Blanc is the monarch of mountains; 

They crowned him long ago 
On a throne of rocks, in a robe of clouds, 
With a diadem of snow. 

21. The glories of our blood and state 

Are shadows, not substantial things; 
There is no armor against fate; 
Death lays his icy hands on kings. 



Exercise 83 

(Review) 

i. Construct a Simple Sentence with compound 
subject; with compound predicate; with both subject 
and predicate compound. 



n8 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

2. Construct a Complex Sentence containing a modi- 
fying clause; a clause used as subject; a clause used 
as complement. 

3. Construct a Compound Sentence in which the 
separate sayings are related by similarity of meaning; 
by contrast; by alternate choice; by cause and effect. 



CHAPTER IX 

OF ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES 

78. Elliptical Sentences Defined. Language is 
an intensely practical matter, designed only to 
express thought, and never employed for its own 
sake. It is, therefore, both natural and proper 
that we should from time to time omit from our 
sentences grammatical parts which it is unneces- 
sary to use, our meaning being well understood 
without them. Such omissions are especially com- 
mon in familiar conversation. 

The omission of part of a sentence necessary to 
grammatical completeness but not to the meaning is 
called Ellipsis (Greek, "a leaving out"). 

A sentence in which an omission occurs is called 
an Elliptical Sentence. 

Definition. An elliptical sentence is a sentence 
in which an omission occurs. 

The following examples of ellipsis should be care- 
fully studied. The words inclosed in brackets are 
usually omitted: 

(i) This is important if [it is] true. 

(2) He fell while [he was] bravely leading his men. 

(3) Who did that? Jack [did it]. 

119 



(4 
(5 
(6 
(7 
(8 
(9 
(io 
(" 

(12 

(i3 
(14 
(15 
(16 

(17 
(18 

(19 

(20 



SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

I can't come. Why [can you] not [come]? 

He has gone, no one knows where [he has gone]. 

She has a pink gown, I [have] a blue [gown]. 

Do you promise? I do [promise]. 

I have never seen her, but Blanche has [seen her]. 

You may stay if you want to [stay].* 

He is not so tall as I [am tall]. 

You are wiser than I [am wise]. 

He looks as [he would look] if he were tired. 

She is seventeen [years old]. 

It is half past ten [o'clock]. 

School closes on the twenty-second [day of the month]. 

[I] thank you. 

Why [is] this noise [made]? 

[God give you a] good morning, sir. 

O [I long] for a glass of water. 

You are the man [whom] I want to see. 



Exercise 84 

Rewrite the following sentences supplying within 
brackets the words necessary to grammatical com- 
pleteness: 

I. 

1. I walk when I can. 

2. He is witty but vulgar. 

3. I treat him as a friend. 

4. She is as pretty as ever. 

5. She loves Fido as well as I. 

6. She loves Fido as well as me. 

7. Love thy neighbor as thyself. 

*This omission of the verb after " to" is not approved by careful writers. 



OF ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES 121 

8. I love my mother more than he. 

9. I love my mother more than him. 

10. Who steals my purse steals trash. 

II. 

11. You have known her longer than I. 

12. She is more generous than prudent. 

13. Father made and I painted the boat. 

14. Are you dumb? If not, speak to me. 

15. Either a knave or a fool has done this. 

16. If the day be fine, and I can go, I will. 

17. A greyhound can run faster than a hare. 

18. He has never seen the ocean, but I have. 

19. You should not imitate such a girl as she. 

20. Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard 
his spots? 

III. 

21. Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man, 
and writing an exact man. 

22. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, 
and some few to be chewed and digested. 

23. Histories make men wise; poets, witty; the mathe- 
matics, subtle; natural philosophy, deep; moral, grave; 
logic and rhetoric, able to contend. 

24. We must take the current when it serves, 
Or lose our ventures. 

25. Love looks not with the eyes, but with the mind; 
And therefore is wing'd Cupid painted blind. 

26. I dare do all that may become a man; 
Who dares do more is none. 



122 SENTENCES AND THEIR STRUCTURE 

27. Trifles light as air 
Are to the jealous confirmations strong 
As proofs of holy writ. 

28. Blow, blow, thou winter wind! 
Thou art not so unkind 

As man's ingratitude. 

29. Think naught a trifle, though it small appear; 
Small sands the mountain, moments make the year, 
And trifles life. 

30. Who dares think one thing, and another tell, 
My heart detests him as the gates of hell. 

Exercise 85 

Write five elliptical sentences, and tell what words 
are omitted. 



PART II 
THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

WITH 

Practical Exercises 



CHAPTER I 

OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Having in Part I studied sentences as wholes 
and become familiar with their general structure, 
we are now prepared to study the uses and forms of 
single words. 

79. Words Classified According to Function. Our 

language contains more than two hundred thou- 
sand words; but when we examine the ways in 
which these words are used in sentences, we find 
that we can arrange them all in a few general classes 
according to their function, that is, according to 
what they do. These general classes are called the 
Parts of Speech. 1 

80. Nouns. Examine the italicized words in the 
following sentence : 

The gallant crew of the battleship Maine were under 
perfect discipline. 

The italicized words, you observe, are names of 
things. 

x To the Teacher. The definitions of the parts of speech seem to 
present no special difficulty to pupils; the real difficulty is to recognize 
the different kinds of words as they occur. In this chapter, therefore, 
much space has been given to exercises. 

125 



126 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

A word used as the name of something is called a 
Noun. 

Definition. A noun is a word used as the name of 
something. 

■ 
Other examples are : 

Names of objects: Webster, Chicago, army, iron. 
Names of actions: walking, laughter, retreat, delay. 
Names of qualities: sweetness, warmth, beauty, vice. 
Names of conditions: sickness, sleep, death, fatigue. 
Names of thoughts: idea, doubt, belief, opinion. 

Exercise 86 

Make a list of the Nouns in the following sentences: 

i. Brevity is the soul of wit. 

2. Misery acquaints a man with strange bed-fellows. 

3. They that die by famine die by inches. 

4. Nothing is impossible to diligence and skill. 

5. The music of the great organ sometimes sounds like 
the roll of thunder. 

6. The length of the journey and the difficulty of the 
road over the mountains discouraged the soldiers, though 
the general spirit of the army remained excellent. 

7. Sailing on this lake is somewhat dangerous, because 
the wind comes through the gaps of the mountains in sudden 
and uneven puffs. 

8. Pride goeth before destruction, and a haughty spirit 
before a fall. 

9. Solitude is as needful to the imagination as society is 
wholesome for the character. 



OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 127 

10. 'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view. 
And robes the mountain in its azure hue. 

To the Teacher. If more drill in the recognition of nouns is needed, 
Exercises 3, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, and many others will be found 
suitable. 

Exercise 87 

Write the name of something that you can see; 
of something that you can hear but not see; of some- 
thing that you can feel but not see; of something that 
you can smell but not see; of something that you can 
neither see, taste, feel, hear, nor smell. 

81. Pronouns. No one would ever say : "Charles 
bought Charles a top; the top Charles afterward 
gave to Charles's sister Frances; Frances wanted 
the top." Such a sentence would be both disagree- 
able to the ear and obscure: it might refer to one 
Charles and one Frances or to more than one. We 
should probably say instead: "Charles bought 
himself a top, which he afterward gave to his sister 
Frances, who wanted ti" In this sentence the 
obscurity and the monotonous repetition are both 
avoided by using the words "himself," "which," 
"he," "his," "who," and "it"— little words that 
indicate the objects referred to without naming 
them. 

In asking a question about some object the name 
of which we do not know, we represent the object 
by "who" or "what": as, "Who is there?" 'What 
did you say?" 



128 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

A word used instead of a noun is called a Pronoun. 
The word (or group of words) for which a pronoun 
stands is called the Antecedent of the pronoun. 

Definition. A pronoun is a word used instead 
of a noun. 

Definition. The antecedent of a pronoun is the 
word or group of words for which the pronoun 
stands. 

The antecedents of pronouns are often not expressed. 

Exercise 88 

i. Write your name. Write five substitutes for 
your name that you use in referring to yourself. 

2 . Write five substitutes for names that you use in 
speaking of yourself and others together. 

3. Write the words you use as substitutes for the 
names of persons to whom you are speaking; of a boy 
about whom you are speaking; of a girl; of a thing; 
of two boys; of three girls; of four things. 

Exercise 89 

Make a list of the Pronouns in the following selec- 
tions: 

I. 

Philadelphia, 5 July, 1775. 
Mr. Strahan: — You are a member of Parliament, and 
one of that majority which has doomed my country to 
destruction. You have begun to burn our towns and murder 



OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 129 

our people. Look upon your hands; they are stained with 
the blood of your relations! You and I were long friends; 
you are now my enemy, and I am v 

' B. Franklin. 
II. 

Then spake the chief butler unto Pharaoh, saying, I do 
remember my faults this day: Pharaoh was wroth with his 
servants, and put me in ward in the house of the captain of 
the guard, me and the chief baker: and we dreamed a dream 
in one night, I and he; we dreamed each man according to 
the interpretation of his dream. And there was with us 
there a young man, an Hebrew, servant to the captain of the 
guard; and we told him, and he interpreted to us our dreams ; 
to each man according to his dream he did interpret. And 
it came to pass, as he interpreted to us, so it was; me he 
restored unto mine office, and him he hanged. Then Pharaoh 
sent and called Joseph, and. they brought him hastily out 
of the dungeon: and he shaved himself, and changed his 
raiment, and came in unto Pharaoh. 

To the Teacher. If further drill in the recognition of pronouns is 
desired, Exercises 22, 36, 49, 51, 56, and 69 will be found suitable. 

82. Adjectives. Many nouns have very wide 
meanings. The noun "horses," for example, ap- 
plies to all the horses in the world; and to bring the 
meaning of the word down to the measure of our 
thought we add to it one or more distinguishing 
words or modifiers : as, 
Black 



Trotting 

Two 

These 

Some 

Both 

No 



horses. 



i 3 o THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Pronouns may represent objects which have dis- 
tinguishing attributes, and therefore they, too, may 
be accompanied by distinguishing or modifying 
words: as, 

Tired and hungry, I lay down to sleep. 

A word used to modify a noun or a pronoun is 
called an Adjective. 

Definition. An adjective is a word used to modify 
a noun or a pronoun. 

Though the word "adjective" means "put next to," 
adjectives are often separated from the nouns or pronouns 
which they modify : as, 

You look happy. 

The pears that you laid away have become ripe. 
There, silent and still, lay the army. 

Some adjectives show a quality or attribute of the object 
we have in mind; others show which objects; others show 
how many or how much. 

Exercise 90 

Mention as many Adjectives as you can think of 
that might be used to modify each of the following 
nouns: 

i. House 3. Soldiers 5. Grass 7. Flowers 9. Cents 
2. Pens 4. Shoes 6. Peaches 8. Dollars 10. Road 



OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 131 

Exercise 91 

Write the Adjectives in one column, and opposite in 
another column the nouns which they modify: 

i. Little strokes fell great oaks. 

2. Please make no noise. 

3. Where did you find those big apples? 

4. I found them in the third bin. 

5. Let us climb yonder mountain. 

6. All men must die. 

7. Most boys like football. 

8. Every dog has his day. 

9. No school to-morrow! 

10. Along both banks are beautiful shaded walks; and 
near the mill are two little islands covered with ancient trees. 

Exercise 92 

Make a list of the Adjectives, and opposite each 
write the word which it modifies: 

1. The stately homes of England, — 

How beautiful they stand 

Amid their tall ancestral trees, 

O'er all the pleasant land! 

2. The castled crag of Drachenfels 
Frowns o'er the wide and winding Rhine. 

3. Up from the meadows rich with corn, 
Clear in the cool September morn, 
The clustered spires of Frederick stand, 
Green-walled by the hills of Maryland. 



i 3 2 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

4. Night , sable goddess! from her ebon throne, 
In rayless majesty, now stretches forth 
Her leaden scepter o'er a slumbering world. 

5. How beautiful is night! 

A dewy freshness, fills the silent air ; 

No mist obscures; nor cloud, nor speck, nor stain, 

Breaks the serene of Heaven: 

In full-orbed glory, yonder moon divine 

Rolls through the dark blue depths; 

Beneath her steady ray 

The desert circle spreads 

Like the round ocean, girdled with the sky. 

How beautiful is night! 

83. "A" or "An" and "The." Examine the 
adjectives in the following selection: 

A man and a lion once had a dispute as to which belonged 
to the nobler race. The man pointed to an ancient monument 
on which was sculptured a triumphant hunter standing over 
a vanquished lion. "That doesn't settle the question," said 
the lion; "for if a lion had been the sculptor, he would have 
represented the lion as standing over the hunter." 

Every noun in this selection is accompanied by 
"a," "an," or "the," of which "a" and "an" are 
merely different forms of the same word. These 
remarkable little words are adjectives; but they 
are so peculiar in their function and so frequent in 
recurrence that they are conveniently grouped to- 
gether and called Articles. 

To the Teacher. If more drill in the recognition of adjectives is 
needed, Exercises 7, 8, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 36, 54, 56, and many others 
will be found suitable. 



OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 133 

Exercise 93 

(Review) 

Tell the part of speech of each word in the following 
sentences: 

Model for Written Exercise. Write the different 
parts of speech in separate columns: thus, 

N. I Pro. I Adj. J V. 

1. Facts are stubborn things. 

2. Order is Heaven's first law. 

3. Time rolls his ceaseless course. 

4. No mate, no comrade, Lucy knew. 

5. The groves were God's first temples. 

84. Verbs. Verbs have already been studied in 
Part I, Sections 27-33. 

Exercise 94 

Make a list of the Verbs and Verb Phrases in 
Exercises 36, 38, and 39. 

85. Adverbs. The action or state denoted by a 
verb may vary in time, place, manner or degree. 
For example, a person may laugh now or to-morrow 
here or there, loudly or quietly, much or little. Such 
words, used with verbs to express modifications of 



134 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



time, place, manner, or degree are called Adverbs. 
Other examples are: 

Adverbs. 



He went - 



again. 

soon. 

yesterday. 

there. 

yonder. 

before. 

cheerfully. 

fast. 

thus. 

twice. 

often. • 

little. 



Time. 



Place. 



Manner. 



Degree. 



A few adverbs denote affirmation, negation, em- 
phasis, or uncertainty, as, 

He certainly went. 
He did not go. 
Yes, he went. 
He went indeed. 
Perhaps he went. 

The ideas denoted by many adjectives may vary 
like the actions denoted by verbs, especially in de- 
gree; therefore adverbs, especially of degree, are 
often used to modify adjectives: as, 



He is 



Adverbs 

very 

exceedingly 

rather 

somewhat 

too 



Adjective 



shy. 



OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 135 

Similarly, the ideas denoted by many adverbs 
may vary in degree; therefore adverbs are often 
used to modify adverbs : as, 

Adverbs Adverb 



He writes 



very 
too 
rather 
I more 



slowly. 



Definition. An adverb is a word used to modify 
a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. 



Exercise 95 

Use Adverbs with the Verbs in the following sentences, 
and tell whether they show time, place, manner or 
degree: 

i. Come . 6. We heard the noise — — . 

2. He came . 

3. He will come 

4. The ship sailed — 

5. The agent called - 



7. The policeman looked . 

8. The tired traveler slept . 

9. The soldier was wounded. 

10. Were you thrown from 

a horse? 



Exercise 96 

Write in one column the Adverbs and in an opposite 
column the Verbs or Verb Phrases which they modify: 

1. She sang well. 

2. I was agreeably disappointed. 

3. How is it done? 

4. You have spoken truly. 

5. I can hardly believe it. 



136 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

6. He was ill pleased. 

7. Cut it lengthwise. 

8. Tear it apart. 

9. Put them together. 

10. He was pitched headlong into the sea. 

11. I never saw her. 

12. We came to school late yesterday. 

13. Once or twice we have met alone. 

14. Ambition urges me forward. 

15. Where is your hat? 

16. Are you going far? 

17. We are going abroad. 

18. The shades of night were falling fast. 

19. The night is come, but not too soon. - 

20. Swiftly, swiftly flew the ship, 
Yet she sailed softly too. 

Exercise 97 

Use as many appropriate Adverbs as you can think 
of with each of the following Adjectives: 

1. good. 4. more. 7. tired. 

2. happy. 5. rich. 8. famous. 

3. sick. 6. discouraged. 9. dark. 

10. close. 

Exercise 98 

Write in one column the Adverbs, and in an opposite 
column the Adjectives which they modify: 

1. Are you quite sure? 

2. He was a very tall man. 



OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 137 

3. He was wholly unfit for the position. 

4. Too many cooks spoil the broth. 

5. The sky was nearly black. 

6. Mother is somewhat better. 

7. The wide fringe is too dear. 

8. The Alps are far grander than these mountains. 

9. Trout are exceedingly shy. 
10. The walk was rather long. 



Exercise 99 

Fill with appropriate Adverbs 
following sentences: 



the blanks in the 



i . He ran 

2. She sings — 

3. She reads — 

4. They come 

5. I recited — 



fast. 

— well. 

— more. 
often. 



once. 



6. Write carefully. 

7. I must go soon. 

8. Don't go far. 

9. I went before. 

10. I feel better. 



Exercise 100 

(Review) 

Make a list of all the Adverbs, and tell what they 
modify: 



1. I was very kindly received. 

2. Go directly south. 

3. You read very much too fast. 

4. Do not show your feeling too plainly. 



138 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

5. That was not done well enough. 

6. I will surely disturb you no more. 

7. We are indeed almost there. 

8. He is always there. 

9. Yes, we unfortunately arrived too soon. 

10. I surely expect him to-morrow. 

1 1 . The current runs very fast here. 

12. The shadow on the dial never goes backward. 

13. To and fro, and in and out, the wan stars danced 
between. 

14. She dances very well indeed. 

15. He is not much distressed. 

16. Possibly he has forgotten how much you grieved. 

17. The clock that usually stands here has never run 
accurately. 

18. Why did you come to-day? 

19. You are far too hasty. 

20. I am now much better; I hope to be quite well very 
soon, but I must not try to walk too far to-day. 

21. You may do that once too often. 

22. 'Tis always morning somewhere in the world. 

23. He's armed without that's innocent within. 

24. Hitherto shalt thou come, but no further; and here 
shall thy proud waves be stayed. 

25. The mouse that always trusts to one poor hole 
Can never be a mouse of any soul. 

To the Teacher. If further drill in the recognition of adverbs is 
needed, Exercises 25, 36, and 56 will be found suitable. 



OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 139 

Exercise 101 

(Review) 

Tell the part of speech of each word in the following 
sentences: 

Model for Written Exercise : 

N. | Pro. | Adj. | V. | Adv. 

i . Thou shalt surely die. 

2. There he was quite safe. 

3. My sister will come presently. 

4. This child was very little hurt. 

5. Little white lily smells very sweet. 

86. Prepositions. Compare the following sen- 
tences : 

(a) Robert ran to the house. 

(b) Robert ran past the house. 

In these sentences "to" and "past" show the 
relation of the house to Robert's running. Together 
with the word "house" and its modifier "the," they 
form modifying phrases. 

A word thus used with a substantive to show its 
relation to some other word is called a Preposition. 

A phrase consisting of a preposition with a sub- 
stantive is called a Prepositional Phrase. 

Definition. A preposition is a word used to show 



140 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



the relation between a substantive and some other 
word. 

Definition. A prepositional phrase is a phrase 
consisting of a preposition and a substantive. 

The substantive used with a preposition is often called 
the Object of the Preposition.* Most frequently, but not 
always, it is a noun or a pronoun (236). 

Other examples are : 



The book 



Prepositional Phrases 
used as Adjectives 



Preposition 


Substantive 


on 


the table. 


in 


the desk. 


under 


the seat. 


behind 


the door. 


by 


the window. 


beneath 


the cover. 


at 


the top. 


below 


the dictionary 


beside 


the lamp. 


between 


us. 


near 


you. 


behind 


me. 



The preceding prepositional phrases modify a 
noun; the following modify a verb or an adjective: 



x The Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature disapproves 
of the use of this term. 



OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 141 





Prepositional Phrases 




used as Adverbs 




Preposition Substantive 




' to the village. 




across the fields. 




around the lake. 




down the street. 


We walked < 


over the bridge. 




past the schoolhouse 




through the tunnel. 




during the storm. 




with him. 




after sunset. 


It is long 


before dark. 


, till morning. 



Though the word "preposition' ' means "placed 
before, " a preposition and its substantive are often 
separated by other words; and sometimes the 
preposition comes after the substantive: as, 

He came with at least two thousand men. 

The top of yon high eastern hill. 

What are you looking at ? {i.e., At what are you looking?) 

Exercise 102 

Mention as many Prepositions as you can that might 
be used in each of the following blanks: 

i. Clouds us. 6. Asleep sermon. 

2. Men wealth. 7. Talk nothing. 

3. Train Boston. 8. Dust door. 

4. Born Savannah. 9. Travel England. 

5. Tom went the house. 10. The ship sailed the 

river. 



142 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



Exercise 103 

Make a list of the Prepositions and their sub- 
stantives in the following selection: 

THE BATTLE OF PLASSEY. 

The day broke — the day which was to decide the fate of 
India. At sunrise the army of the Nabob, pouring through 
many openings of the camp, began to move toward the grove 
where the English lay. Forty thousand infantry, armed with 
firelocks, pikes, swords, bows and arrows, covered the plain. 
They were accompanied by fifty pieces of ordnance of the 
largest size, each tugged by a long team of white oxen, and 
each pushed on from behind by an elephant. Some smaller 
guns, under the direction of a few French auxiliaries, were 
perhaps more formidable. The cavalry were fifteen thou- 
sand. The force which Clive had to oppose to this great 
multitude consisted of only three thousand men. * * * 

The battle commenced with a cannonade, in which the 
artillery of the Nabob did scarcely any execution, while the 
few field pieces of the English produced great effect. Several 
of the most distinguished officers in Surajah Dowlah's 
service fell. Disorder began to spread through his ranks. 
* * * Clive snatched the moment, and ordered his troops to 
advance. The confused and disspirited multitude gave way 
before the onset of disciplined valor. In an hour the forces 
of Surajah Dowlah were dispersed, never to reassemble. * * * 
With the loss of twenty-two soldiers killed and fifty wounded, 
Clive had scattered an army of nearly sixty thousand men, 
and subdued an empire larger and more populous than 
Great Britain. — Macaulay: "Essay on Lord Clive." 

To the Teacher. If further drill in the recognition of prepositions 
is needed, Exercises 8, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 41, 56, and 57 will be found 
suitable. 



OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 143 

87. Conjunctions. Examine the following: 

Compound Sentences 

Connecting 
Independent Clause Word Independent Clause 



The wind blew, and the rain fell. 

I ran fast, but I missed the train. 

Complex Sentences 

Connecting 
Principal Clause Word Subordinate Clause 



Rob will go if Ethel goes. 

He says that he will come. 

Guy is older than Lewis [is old]. 

Connected Phrases 

Connecting 
Word 

By the people and for the people. 

Connected Words 

Connecting 
Word 

Sink or swim. 

$* 
From this it appears that some words are used 
as mere connectives, joining together words, phrases, 
or clauses. 

A word used to connect words or groups of words 
is called a Conjunction. 

Definition. A conjunction is a word used to 
connect words or groups of words. 



144 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

88. Position of Conjunctions. When subordinate 
clauses come first, they carry with them the con- 
junction which connects them with the principal 
clause : as, 

Conjunction Subordinate Clause Principal Clause 



If 


Ethel goes 


Rob will go. 


Unless 


it rains 


we shall all go. 


That 


he will come 


is certain. 


liether 


father can come 


is doubtful. 



Conjunctions sometimes occur in pairs, the first 
of the pair being not really a connective, but a sort 
of forerunner announcing that something will pres- 
ently be added: as, 

Either you or I must go. 

It is neither useful nor ornamental. 

The king was weak both in body and in mind. 

Sometimes a conjunction is used at the beginning 
of a separate sentence, or even a paragraph, to 
connect it with what precedes. 

Prepositions connect words, but not in the same way as 
conjunctions. When words are connected by prepositions, 
one always bears a modifying relation to the other. 

Exercise 104 

Fill the blanks with appropriate Conjunctions: 

i. Poor honest. 

2. Beautiful good. 



OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 145 

3. I wonder he will come. 

4. I cannot deny he means well. 

5. We cannot go we finish our task. 

6. He was punished he was guilty. 

7. I could : buy borrow it. 

8. He was punished he was not guilty. 

9. I do not know I shall walk ride, 

10. She could dance sing, she played 

the piano. 

Exercise 105 

Make a list of the Conjunctions in the following 
sentences: 

1. She was good as she was fair. 

2. Handsome is as handsome does. 

3. Neither a borrower nor a lender be. 

4. Better one bird in hand than ten in the wood. 

5. Rich gifts wax poor when givers prove unkind. 

6. Experience keeps a dear school, but fools will learn in 
no other. 

7. So teach us to number our days, that we may apply 
our hearts unto wisdom. 

8. Dost thou love life? Then do not squander time; for 
that is the stuff life is made of. 

9. Mend your speech a little, 
Lest it may mar your fortunes. 

10. O what a tangled web we weave, 
When first we practice to deceive! 



146 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



Exercise 106 

Use each of the following Conjunctions in a sen- 
tence: 

for since although because unless 

To the Teacher. If further drill in the recognition of conjunctions 
is needed, Exercises 80 and 84 will be found suitable. 

89. Interjections. Examine the use of the itali- 
cized words: 

Ouch! I cut myself. 
Bravo! that was well done. 

You observe that "Ouch!" and "Bravo!" form no 
part of the accompanying sentences, but are out- 
cries caused by sudden feeling. 

A word used as an expression of sudden or strong 
feeling, but not forming part of a sentence, is called 
an Interjection. 

Definition. An interjection is a word used to 
express sudden or strong feeling. 

Punctuation. An interjection should be followed 
by an exclamation point (!). 

Exercise 107 

Make a list of the Interjections in the following 
sentences: 

i. Alas! she is ill. 

2. Ah! there she comes. 



OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 147 

3. Lo! the room is empty. 

4. Bosh! I don't believe it. 

5. Oh! I have spilled my ink. 

6. Tut, tut! that is not true. 

7. Fie! a soldier, and afraid! 

8. Pshaw! it has begun to rain. 

9. The soldiers are coming. Hurrah! 

10. Hark! was there ever so merry a note? 

Exercise 108 

Write five sentences of your own containing Inter- 
jections. 

Exercise 109 

(Review) 

Tell the part of speech of each word in the following 
sentences: 

Model for Written Exercise : 
N. I Pro. I Adj. I V. I Adv. | Prep. | Conj. | Int. 

1. Procrastination is the thief of time. 

2. Custom reconciles us to everything. 

3. The march of the human mind is slow. 

4. Patience is a necessary ingredient of genius. 

5. Earth with her thousand voices praises God. 

6. How blessings brighten as they take their flight. 

7. Assassination has never changed the history of the 
world. 

8. Fine manners need the support of fine manners in 
others. 

9. Honor and shame from no condition rise; 
Act well your part, there all the honor lies. 



i 4 8 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

io. When sorrows come, they come not single spies, 
But in battalions. 

90. Caution. It must not be supposed that the 
same word is always used as the same part of speech. 
Examine, for instance, the use of "iron" in the 
following sentences: 

(a) Iron is heavy. 

(b) An iron kettle hung on the crane. 

(c) Laundresses iron clothes. 

(d) An iron-bound bucket hung in the well. 

In (a) "iron" is a noun; in (b) it is an adjective; 
in (c), a verb; in (d) it is used as an adverb. It is 
clear, therefore, that the use of a word may vary, 
requiring us to classify it sometimes as one part of 
speech, sometimes as another. i 

Exercise 110 

Tell to what part of speech each word in italics be- 
longs, according to its use in the sentence: 



i. (a) The sun shines on rich and poor alike, (b) He is 
a rich man, but a poor scholar. 

x The old notion that the classification of a word depends on its 
inherent nature rather than on its use in a given sentence, and that 
"once an adverb always an adverb," is rejected by all modern author- 
ities, as may be seen by consulting any modern unabridged dictionary. 

The Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature says: "It is 
recommended that words be never dealt with as isolated units, but 
always in sentences. Many are, in fact, indeterminate when standing 
alone. Thus the word "enough," so standing, does not show whether 
it is adjective, or adverb, or substantive. It cannot be said that 
"enough," as a word, is any of these things; but a given "enough" in 
a sentence quite clearly shows its character." Report, p. 13. 



OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 149 

2. (a) Farewell! (b) Adieu! (c) Where thou art gone 
adieus and farewells are a sound unknown. 

3. (a) One swallow does not make a summer, (b) This 
is a summer hotel. 

4. (a) I am very glad to see you. (b) You are the z;^ 
man I was looking for. (c) "Very" is a common word. 

5. I was about to send for you, for I have something 
to show you. 

6. (a) Farmers till the soil, (b) Look in the till, (c) 
Stay till the bell rings, (d) Stay till the next train. 

7. (a) Do not lose a second, (b) I second your motion, 
(c) She won second prize, (d) You come second. 

8. (a) We walked afow/. (b) What did you talk about? 
(c) We talked afow/ golf, (d) About & dozen girls were there. 

9. (a) All men are mortal. (&) He staked his all on the 
turn of a card, (c) All agreed with me. (d) That is all right. 

10. (a) Take ei/Aer road, (b) He must e^er work or 
starve, (c) Ask e#for of them. 

II. 

11. (a) He ran fast, (b) He was 2, fast runner, (c) They 
fast twice in a week, (d) This /#.?£ lasted forty days. 

12. (a) I /i&e him. (jb) I shall not look upon his like 
again, (c) He looks fo'&e his grandfather, (d) He talks /i&g 
his mother, (e) Like causes produce like results. (/) Like 
produces like. 

13. (a) We want more men. (b) Fear no more the heat 
of the sun. 

14. (a) He laughs too much, (b) Much learning hath 
made you mad. (e) She made much of him. 

15. (a) It was his only chance, (b) He went only to the 
corner, (c) "Only" should come next to the expression that 
it modifies. 



i#> THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

1 6. (a) Turn over a new leaf, (b) We came over the moun- 
tain, (c) We must have walked over six miles. 

17. (a) 6mce that time I have not seen her. (b) Since 
it is raining, we will not go. (c) I have not seen her since. 

18. (a) The house still stands, (b) All is still, (c) A still 
small voice, (d) Alcohol is made in a still, (e) With his 
name the mothers still their babes. 

19. (a) That bird is a thrush, (b) I thought //?#/ it was a 
r@bin. (c) A city that is set on a hill cannot be hid. (d) That 
you have wronged me doth appear in this, (e) That is what 
I meant. 

20. (a) We read for a wMe. (6) We read while they 
played tennis, (c) They ^Me away the time with books 
and games. 

Exercise 111 

1. Use each of the following words first as a Noun, 
then as a Verb: 

bark comb guide pen talk 

2. Use each of the following words first as a Noun, 
then as an Adjective: 

autumn cloth dinner silver tin 

3. Use each of the following words first as an 
Adjective, then as a Verb: 

clean left lower smooth thin 

4. Use each of the following words first as a Noun, 
then as an Adjective, then as a Verb: 

calm light roast sound spring 



OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 151 

5. Use each of the following words first as an 
Adjective, then as an Adverb, then as a Verb: 

better long 

6. Use each of the following words first as an Ad- 
verb, then as a Preposition: 

above behind down on up 

7. Use each of the following words first as an 
Adverb, then as a Preposition, then as a Conjunction: 

after before 

91. Summary of the Parts of Speech. The 

classes of words described in this chapter comprise 
all the words of our language. They may be sum- 
marized as follows : 

Nouns. Words used as names. 

Pronouns. Words used instead of nouns. 

Adjectives. Words used to modify nouns or 
pronouns. 

Adverbs. Words used to modify verbs, adjec- 
tives or other adverbs. 

Verbs. Words used to assert. 

Prepositions. Words used to show the relation 
between a substantive and some other word. 

Conjunctions. Words used to connect words or 
groups of words. 

Interjections. Words used to express sudden or 
strong feeling. 



j 52 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Substantive is a common term for a noun, a pronoun,' 
and any other word used to denote something about which 
the speaker is thinking (27). 

Exercise 112 

(Review) 

Classify the parts of speech in the following sen- 
tences: 

Model for Written Exercise : 
N. I Pro. I Adj. I V. I Adv. | Prep. | Conj. | Int. 



1. Strike, in the name of Freedom! 

2. Be just before you are generous. 

3. Hats off! the flag is passing by. 

4. Be silent when others are speaking. 

5. A bad beginning makes a bad ending. 

6. Health and cheerfulness make beauty. 

7. A clear conscience is a coat of mail. 

8. Much tongue and much judgment seldom go together. 

9. The setting of a great hope is like the setting of the sun. 

10. He who overlooks one crime invites the commission 
of another. 

II. 

11. A drop of honey catches more flies than a hogshead 
of vinegar. 

12. He that ruleth his spirit is better than he that taketh 
a city. 

13. Eat at your own table as you would eat at the table 
of a king. 



OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 153 

14. An intemperate, disorderly youth will bring to old 
age a feeble and worn-out body. 

15. A bitter jest, when it comes too near the truth, leaves 
a sharp sting behind it. 

16. Glad did he live, and gladly die, 
And he laid him down with a will. 

17. O Solitude! where are the charms 
That sages have seen in thy face? 

18. And men may rise on stepping-stones 
Of their dead selves to higher things. 

19. How far that little candle throws his beams! 
So shines a good deed in this naughty world! 

20. Night drew her sable curtain down, 
And pinned it with a star. 

Exercise 113 

(Review) 

Classify the parts of speech in the following sen- 
tences: 

i . He who never relaxes into sportiveness is a wearisome 
companion; but beware of him who jests at everything. 

2. Garments will fall to pieces, jewels and gold will lose 
something of their luster, but the fame that great poems 
acquire will last through all time. 

3. Yet I doubt not through the ages one increasing 

purpose runs, 
And the thoughts of men are widened with the proc- 
ess of the suns. 



154 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

4. Good name in man or woman, dear my lord, 
Is the immediate jewel of their souls: 

Who steals my purse, steals trash; 'tis something, 
nothing; 

'Twas mine, 'tis his, and has been slave to thou- 
sands : 

But he that filches from me my good name, 

Robs me of that which not enriches him, 

And makes me poor indeed. 

5. How dear to this heart are the scenes of my childhood, 

When fond recollection presents them to view! 

The orchard, the meadow, the deep-tangled wild- 
wood, 
And every loved spot which my infancy knew: 

The wide-spreading pond, and the mill which stood 
by it, 
The bridge, and the rock where the cataract fell; 

The cot of my father, the dairy-house nigh it, 
And e'en the rude bucket which hung in the well, 
The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, 
The moss-covered bucket which hung in the well. 

92. Verbals. Two important kinds of words 
are formed from verbs and retain some of the 
characteristics of verbs; but they differ from other 
verb-forms in being used as adjectives or nouns. 
They are called Verbals, and they are of two kinds: 
(1) adjective-verbals, called Participles; and (2) 
noun- verbals, called Infinitives. These words are 
forms of the verb and are described in detail in 
Part II ; but they are so peculiar in their nature and 
frequent in their occurrence that they require brief 
preliminary description now. 



OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 155 

93. Participles. Examine the italicized word in 
the following sentence: 

The girl reading a book is my cousin. 

In this sentence "reading" expresses action and 
has an object, "book"; but it is lacking in the power 
to assert. "The girl reading a book" is not a sen- 
tence (17). Therefore ' ' reading' ' is no t a verb , though 
it is formed from the verb read by adding -ing. 
Its use is that of an adjective modifying "girl." 

A form of the verb that partakes of the nature 
of an adjective is called a Participle. 

Definition. A participle is a form of the verb 
that partakes of the nature of an adjective. 

The distinguishing marks of a participle are these : 
(1) it is derived from a verb; (2) it takes, or may 
take, the same complements and modifiers as the 
verb from which it is derived; (3) it is used as an 
adjective. 

Participles are of two principal kinds: 

1. The Present Participle, formed from the verb 
by adding "-ing": as, "Hearing a noise, I went to 
the window." 

2. The Past Participle, usually formed from the 
verb by adding "ed," "d," "t," "en," or "n": as, 
"The plant called nightshade is poisonous" ; " Hidden 
by the leaves, the nest escaped notice." 

From simple participles are derived Phrasal Participles: 
as, "Florence, having said good-bye, turned to go." 



156 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Exercise 114 

Make a list of the Participles in the following 
sentences, and tell what they modify: 

i. I saw a child sitting by the road and weeping. 

2. I went up to her, distressed at her grief, and hoping 
I could help her. 

3. Sweeping and eddying through the bridge rose the 
belated tide. 

4. Peter the Hermit, dressed in a coarse robe, and bearing 
in his hand a crucifix, traveled through Italy and France, 
preaching. 

5. Now morn, her rosy steps in the eastern clime 
Advancing, sowed the earth with Orient pearl. 

6. The world is too much with us; late and soon, 
Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers. 

7. Sudden a thought came like a full-blown rose, 
Flushing his brow. 

8. Morn, 

Waked by the circling hours, with rosy hand 
Unbarred the gates of light. 

9. I have heard the mavis singing 

Its love song to the morn; 
I've seen the dewdrop clinging 
To the rose just newly born. 

10. By the rude bridge that arched the flood, 
Their flag to April's breeze unfurled, 



Here once the embattled farmers stood 



And fired the shot heard round the world. 



OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 157 

94. Infinitives. Examine the italicized words in 
the following sentence : 

To climb 



steep hills requires a slow pace. 
Climbing J r ^ 

Here " climb" and " climbing' ' are forms of the 
verb "climb," and have a direct object, "hills"; but 
they are lacking in the power to assert. They are 
used to name an action, and therefore they partake 
of the nature of nouns. 

A form of the verb that partakes of the nature 
of a noun is called an Infinitive. 

Definition. An infinitive is a form of the verb 
that partakes of the nature of a noun. 

The distinguishing marks of an infinitive are 
these: (1) it is derived from a verb; (2) it takes, 
or may take, the same complements and modifiers 
as the verb from which it is derived; (3) it is 
used as a noun. 

Infinitives are of two principal kinds: 

1, The Root Infinitive, so called because it is the 
same as the root, or simple form of the verb: as, 
"To obey is better than sacrifice"; "You need not 
wait." It is often called simply the Infinitive. 

2. The Infinitive in-ing, often called the Gerund: 1 

as, " Splitting rails is hard work"; "The morning was 
spent in writing letters." 

1 Gerund is the term recommended by the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomen- 
clature, July, iqi3. When this term is used, the Root Infinitive is called simply the 
Infinitive. 



i 5 8 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

The Root Infinitive is commonly, but not always, pre- 
ceded by "to." 

Sometimes this "to" forms with the infinitive an adjective 
phrase or an adverbial phrase: as, "Water to drink''' '; "He 
came to see us." 

From simple infinitives are derived Phrasal Infinitives: 
as, "I expect to be writing letters." 

Exercise 115 

Make a list of the Infinitives and Gerunds in the 
following sentences, and tell of each whether it is used 
as subject, complement of the verb, or part of a modi- 
fying phrase : 

i. To see is to believe. 

2. Always take time to do your best. 

3. Wounds made by words are hard to heal. 

4. One can show his moral courage by daring to do right. 

5. Censure is the tax a man pays to the public for being 
eminent. 

6. If to do were as easy as to know what were good to 
do, chapels had been churches, and poor men's cottages 
princes' palaces. 

7. Of all those arts in which the wise excel 
Nature's chief masterpiece is writing well. 

8. Truth from his lips prevailed with double sway 
And fools who came to scoff remained to pray. 

9. Unpracticed he to fawn, or seek for power, 
By doctrines fashioned to the varying hour; 
Far other aims his heart had learned to prize, 
More skilled to raise the wretched than to rise. 



OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 159 

10. Why so pale and wan, fond lover? 
Prithee, why so pale? 
Will, when looking well can't move her, 
Looking ill prevail? 
Prithee, why so pale? 

95. Caution. Not all words ending in "-ing" are 
participles or gerunds. Examine, for instance, the 
italicized words in the following sentences: 

(1) The child slept during all the noise. 

(2) Nothing daunted, he began again. 

(3) There is something in the wind. 

In (1) the word ending in "-ing" is a preposition. 
In (2) it has the force of an adverb, modifying the 
participle "daunted." In (3) it is a noun derived, 
not from a verb, but from the vague noun "thing." 

The italicized words in the following sentences are to be 
classed as nouns: 

(1) This constant climbing of steep hills takes my breath. 

(2) Spelling is harder for some persons than for others. 

In (1) "climbing" is derived from a verb, and so far re- 
sembles a gerund; but it differs from a gerund in having 
completely lost its verbal force, for it is modified by ad- 
jectives instead of by adverbs, and instead of taking a direct 
object like the verb from which it is derived, it is followed 
by a prepositional phrase. 

In (2) "spelling" is merely the name of something. 

In "Good spelling is easier for some than for others," 
"spelling" is a noun, because modified by an adjective, "good." 

In li Spelling long words is easier for some than for others," 
"spelling" is a gerund, because it has a direct object, "words." 



i6o THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



Exercise 116 



Tell the classification of each italicized word in the 
following sentences: 

i. A boy came sauntering along. 

2. I found her reading "Idyls of the King." 

3. According to my watch, it is just ten o'clock. 

4. His mother is opposed to his playing football. 

5. Feeling one's way in the dark is slow work. 

6. Feeling sure that he would come, I waited longer. 

7. Unless the kettle boiling be, 
Filling the teapot spoils the tea. 

8. He would do nothing to relieve the distress of his 
starving tenants. 

9. Linnaeus knelt beside the mountain gorses, thanking 
God for their beauty. 

10. In the battle off Cape Vincent, Nelson gave orders 
for boarding the "San Josef," exclaiming, "Westminster 
Abbey, or victory!" 



Exercise 117 

(Review) 

Tell the part of speech of each word in the following 
sentences: 

1. If all the year were playing holidays, 
To sport would be as tedious as to work. 

2. Imperial Caesar, dead and turned to clay, 
Might stop a hole to keep the wind away. 



OF THE RECOGNITION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 161 

3. Heaven's ebon vault 
Studded with stars unutterably bright, 

Through which 1 the moon's unclouded grandeur rolls, 
Seems like 2 a canopy which love has spread 
To curtain her sleeping world. 

4. I walk unseen 

On the dry smooth-shaven green, 
To behold the wandering moon 
Riding near her highest noon, 
Like one that had been led astray 
Through the heaven's wide pathless way: 
And oft, as if her head she bowed, 
Stooping through a fleecy cloud. 

5. There was a jolly miller once, 

Lived on the river Dee; 
He worked and sang from morn till night, 

No lark more blithe than he. 
And this the burden of his song 

Forever used to be, — 
I care for nobody, no, not I, 

For nobody cares for me. 



1 Pronoun, antecedent "vault." 

^Adjective, subjective complement: "Heaven's vault seems like [to]." 



CHAPTER II 

OF INFLECTION, DERIVATION, AND COMPOUND WORDS 

Before proceeding with the detailed study of the 
parts of speech, we must learn to distinguish those 
changes in the form of a word that are made by 
Inflection, Derivation, and the formation of Com- 
pound Words. 

96. Inflection. Examine the following groups of 
words: 



Noun 


Pronoun 


Adjective 


Verb 


man 


he 


sweet 


sing 


man's 


his 


sweeter 


sings 


men 


him 


sweetest 


sang 



In each of these groups we recognize the same 
word under different forms. These variations in 
form denote slight modifications in the meaning and 
use of the word, but the noun remains a noun, the 
verb a verb. Moreover, most other words of the 
same class, as "boy," "they," "sick," "hear," 
undergo similar alterations in form. 

A change in the form of a word to show a slight 
change in its meaning or use is called Inflection. 

Definition. Inflection is a change in the form of 
a word to show a change in it« meaning or use. 

162 



OF INFLECTION, DERIVATION, COMPOUND WORDS 163 

Exercise 118 

Mention as many Inflections as you can of the 
following words: 

child heavy they teeth do 

97. Derivation. Compare the following words: 

true 

truly 

truth 

truthful 

untruth 

untruthfulness 

Here we have six words different in meaning and 
use. Some belong to one part of speech, others to 
another. But the last five words are clearly formed 
from the first by attaching a Prefix ("un-") or a 
Suffix ("-ly," "-th," "-ful," "-ness"), or both. 

The formation of a word from another word by 
attaching a prefix or a suffix, or by changing a vowel, 
is called Derivation, The new word is called a 
Derivative. 

Definition. A derivative is a word formed from 
another word or root by attaching a prefix or a 
suffix, or by changing a vowel. 

Examples of derivation by change of vowel are: 
bless, bliss; feed, food; gild, gold; heat, hot; pride, 
proud; raise, rise; tale, tell. 



i64 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Exercise 119 

Mention Derivatives formed from the following 
words: 

child friend give man wise 

98. Compound Words. Examine the following 
words : 

black 
board 
blackboard 

Here we have three different words, entirely 
distinct in meaning and use; but the last is formed 
by combining the first two. 

A new word formed by combining two words is 
called a Compound word. 

Definition. A compound word is a word formed 
by combining two or more words. 

The parts of a compound word are often connected 
with a hyphen: as, "half -penny/ ' ■" son-in-law. " 
Whether to use the hyphen or not cannot be de- 
cided by rule. It is for the most part a question of 
usage, which must be learned from observation or 
from the dictionary. 

Exercise 120 

Make a list of five Compound Words, determining 
from a dictionary how they should be written. 



CHAPTER III 

OF NOUNS 

A Noun is a word used as a name (80). 

I. CLASSIFICATION 

99. Different Kinds of Nouns. Examine the 
names in the following sentence: 

The crew of the battleship Maine were under perfect 
discipline. 

"Battleship" and "Maine" both name the same 
object, but in different ways. "Battleship" is the 
name of any one of a class of ships resembling one 
another in structure and purpose; "Maine" is the 
name of a particular battleship. "Crew" is the 
name of a body of men considered collectively. 
"Discipline" is the name of a condition. 

100. Proper Nouns. The noun "Maine," in our 
illustrative sentence, is the name of a particular 
battleship. 

A noun used as the name of some particular 
object, to distinguish that object from others of its 
kind, is called a Proper Noun. 

165 



166 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Definition. A proper noun is the name of a 
particular person or thing. 

Other examples of proper nouns are: 

Lincoln Monday Nashville Oregon Pike's Peak 

Proper nouns, when written, always begin with 
capital letters; so also do many words derived from 
them: as, America, American, Americanism. 

101. Common Nouns. The noun "battleship" 
is a name common to all ships of the same class. 

A noun that is common or applicable to all objects 
of the same class is called a Common Noun. 

Definition. A common noun is a name common 
to all things of the same kind. 

Other examples of common nouns are: 

city day man mountain state 

Common nouns, when written, begin with small 
letters. 

The words father, mother, uncle, aunt, cousin, and others 
like them, are sometimes common nouns, and sometimes 
proper nouns. They are proper nouns when they are the 
customary names, or part of the customary names, used in 
addressing particular persons. Thus: 

My father is calling me. 

I am coming, Father, 

I have an uncle. 



OF NOUNS 167 

I call him Uncle Henry. 

My dear cousin Jennie (if the writer is accustomed to call 
her "Jennie"). 

My dear Cousin Jennie (if the writer is accustomed to 
call her "Cousin Jennie"). 

Exercise 121 

Write two Proper Nouns suggested by each of the 
following Common Nouns: 

city dog ocean river state 

Exercise 122 

Give the Common Nouns that are applicable to the 
following individual objects: 

Donald England Friday Helen July 

102. Collective Nouns. The common noun 
"crew" is applied to a body of men considered 
together. 

A noun used as the name of a number of objects 
taken together is called a Collective Noun. 

Definition. A collective noun is the name of a 
number of objects taken together. 

Other examples of collective nouns are: 

army (a collection of soldiers) 
fleet (a collection of vessels) 
herd (a collection of animals) 



168 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Exercise 123 

What objects are grouped together by the following 
Collective Nouns? 

audience flock squadron swarm team 

Exercise 124 

(Review) 

Write the Proper Nouns in Exercise 41 in one 
column, the Common Nouns in another column^ and 
the Collective Nouns in a third. 

II. Gender 

103. Gender Defined. Observe the distinction 
between the following nouns: 

lion lioness 

Both nouns name animals of the same class; but 
one is the name of the male animal, the other of the 
female. This distinction is indicated by the in- 
flection "-ess." The distinction between the objects 
themselves is called Sex. The distinction between 
their names is called Gender. 

A word denoting a male object is in the Masculine 
Gender. 

A word denoting a female object is in the Fem- 
inine Gender. 



OF NOUNS 169 

A word denoting an object that has no sex is in 
the Neuter Gender (Latin, "neither"). 

Definition. Gender is a classification of nouns 
and pronouns according to the sex of the objects 
for which they stand. 

Definition. The masculine gender denotes a 
male object. 

Definition. The feminine gender denotes a 
female object. 

Definition. The neuter gender denotes an ob- 
ject that has no sex. 

Words like "friend," "child," "thief," "bird," which 
apply without change to either male or female objects, are 
masculine or feminine according to the sex of the particular 
object spoken of. 1 

104. Ways of Denoting Gender. Compare the 
following pairs of words: 



Masculine 


Feminine 


waiter 

man-servant 

brother 


waitress 

maid-servant 

sister 



You observe from this that there are three ways 
of distinguishing gender: 



1 The old term, Common Gender, is not used by the best recent writers on English 
grammar. 



170 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



1. By a Feminine Suffix, usually "-ess." In the 
following list note the occasional changes in the 
body of the word: 



Masculine 


Feminine 


Masculine 


Feminine 


abbot 


abbess 


host 


hostess 


actor 


actress 


hunter 


huntress 


administrator 


administratrix 


idolater 


idolatress 


adventurer 


adventuress 


Jew 


Jewess 


baron 


baroness 


lad 


lass 


benefactor 


benefactress 


lion 


lioness 


count 


countess 


marquis 


marchioness 


czar 


czarina 


master 


mistress 


deacon 


deaconess 


patron 


patroness 


duke 


duchess 


preceptor 


preceptress 


emperor 


empress 


prince 


princess 


enchanter 


enchantress 


prophet 


prophetess 


executor 


executrix 


shepherd 


shepherdess 


giant 


giantess 


sorcerer 


sorceress 


god 


goddess 


sultan 


sultana 


heir 


heiress 


tiger 


tigress 


hero 


heroine 


waiter 


waitress 



2. By a Compound Word Denoting Gender. 

following are important examples: 



The 



Masculine Feminine 

bull-elephant cow-elephant 

cock-sparrow hen-sparrow 

he-bear she-bear 



Masculine Feminine 

he-goat she-goat 

man-servant maid-servant 



3. By Separate Words. These are to be learned 
from conversation and reading. The following is a 
list of some that are often confounded or otherwise 
misused : 





OF NOUNS 




Masculine 


Feminine Masculine 


Feminine 


bachelor 


spinster, maid 


monk 


nun 


buck 


doe 


ram 


ewe 


bullock 


heifer 


stag 


hind 


drake 


duck 


wizard 


witch 


gander 


goose 








Exercise 125 





171 



Write the Masculine Nouns in one column, the 
Feminine in another column, and the Neuter in a 
third. 

DR. PRIMROSE AND THE FACE WASH 

As we expected our landlord the next day, my wife went 
to make the venison pastry. Moses sat reading, while I 
taught the little ones. My daughters seemed equally busy 
with the rest; and I observed them for a good while cooking 
something over the fire. I at first supposed they were as- 
sisting their mother, but little Dick informed me, in a 
whisper, that they were making a wash for the face. Washes 
of all kinds I had a natural antipathy to, for I knew that, 
instead of mending the complexion, they spoil it. I there- 
fore approached my chair by sly degrees to the fire, and 
grasping the poker, as if it wanted mending, seemingly by 
accident overturned the whole composition, and it was too 
late to begin another. — Goldsmith: "The Vicar of Wakefield." 



Exercise 126 1 

1. Write the Feminine word corresponding to: 

abbot bachelor buck count duke sultan monk stag 
actor bullock czar drake hero marquis ram tiger 



1 To the Teacher, (i) and (2) should be used as a dictation exer- 
se. Other words may be added from the foregoing lists at discretion. 



172 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

2. Write the Masculine word corresponding to: 

doe duck ewe goose heifer hind spinster witch 

3. Write sentences illustrating the correct use of 
such of the foregoing words as the teacher may select, 
consulting a dictionary for their meaning. 

III. Number 

105. Number Defined. Examine the difference 
between the words in the following pairs: 

book fox ox man 

books ioxes oxen men 

The first word of each pair suggests a single 
object; the second word suggests more than one. 
In the first three pairs the difference in meaning is 
brought about by the addition of a suffix; in the 
last, by an internal change in the word. 

The form of a word that denotes one object is 
called the Singular Number. 

The form of a word that denotes more than one 
object is called the Plural Number. 

Definition. The singular number is the form of a 
word that denotes one object. 

Definition. The plural number is the form of a 
word that denotes more than one object. 



OF NOUNS 173" 

Number has an important influence on pronouns (136), 
verbs (189), and the adjectives "this" and "that" (156). 
For example, we say: 

This bell was ringing, but it has stopped 
These bells were ringing, but they have stopped. 

106. Formation of the Plural. Most nouns form 
the plural by adding "s" to the singular: as, book, 
books. The following variations from this regular 
rule are important : 

1. "-es." When the singular ends in a sound that does 
not unite with "s" alone, "es" is added, forming an additional 
syllable: as, fox, foxes. 

2. Plural of Nouns Ending in "0." If the final "o" is 
preceded by a vowel, the plural is formed regularly, i.e., by 
adding "s": as, cameo, cameos. If the final "o" is preceded 
by a consonant, the tendency of modern usage is to form the 
plural by adding "es": as, hero, heroes; potato, potatoes. 
The following common words, however, still form the plural 
by adding "s" alone. 



banjo 


chromo 


halo 


octavo 


solo 


burro 


contralto 


junto 


piano 


stiletto 


canto 


duodecimo 


lasso 


proviso 


torso 


casino 


dynamo 


memento 


quarto- 


tyro 



3. Plural of Nouns Ending in "y." If the "y" is pre- 
ceded by a vowel, the plural is regular: as, valley, valleys. 

If the "y" is preceded by a consonant, "y" is changed to 
"i" and "es" is added to form the plural: as 5 lady, ladies; 
city, cities. 

4. Plural of Nouns Ending in "f." The following nouns 
ending with the sound of "f" change "f" or "fe" to "v" and 
add"es": 



beef 


elf 


knife 


life 


self 


shelf 


wife 


calf 


half 


leaf 


loaf 


sheaf 


thief 


wolf 



i 7 4 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

5. Survivals of Ancient Plurals. In Old English there 
were other ways of forming the plural, traces of which 
survive : 

(1) Plurals in "-en." These were once in very common 
use. The only surviving examples are: oxen, brethren, 
children. Kine (cows) is used in poetry. 

(2) Plurals by Inward Change. Of this method the 
surviving examples are: ioot,feet; tooth, teeth; goose, geese; 
louse, lice; man, men; mouse, mice; woman, women. 

6. Plural of Proper Nouns. Proper nouns, when made 
plural, are not changed internally: as, Henry, Henrys; 
Nero, Neros. 

Proper names preceded by titles, as "Mr. Smith," "Miss 
Smith," "Colonel Smith," are treated in two different ways. 
We say "the Mr. Smiths," "the Mrs. Smiths," "the Miss 
Smiths," "the Colonel Smiths" ; but we also say the "Messrs. 
Smith," "the Misses Smith," and "the Colonels Smith." 

7. Plural of Compound Nouns. Most compound nouns 
form the plural by adding the proper sign of the plural to 
the fundamental part of the word, i.e., to the part which is 
described by the rest of the phrase: as, ox-cart, ox-carts; 
court-martial, courts-martial; aide-de-camp, aides-de-camp. 
When no single word is fundamental, as in "forget-me-not," 
the sign of the plural is put at the end: as, forget-me-nots. 
Words like "spoonful," the compound nature of which has 
been almost forgotten, also take the sign of the plural at the 
end: as, spoonfuls, cupfuls. "Man-servant," "woman- 
servant," and "knight-templar" often add the plural sign 
to both words: as, men-servants. 

Caution. "Brahman," "Mussulman," "Ottoman," and 
"talisman" are not compounds of "man." They resemble 
"German" and "Norman," and form the plural by adding 

"s": as, Mussulmans, talismans. 



OF NOUNS 175 

8. Letters, Figures, and other Symbols are made plural 
by adding an apostrophe and "s" ('s): as, "There are more 
e's than a's in this word;" "Dot your i's and cross your Vs." 

9. Unchanged Plurals. Some names of animals are the 
same in both singular and plural. The important examples 
are: cod, deer, grouse, sheep, salmon, swine, trout. 

Some nouns of number and measure may be used in a 
plural sense without change of form. Important examples 
are: "Two brace of ducks"; "She bought three dozen"', 
"His years are four score"; "Ten head of cattle"; "Two 
hundredweight of iron"; "Three pair of horses"; "Twelve 
yoke of oxen." In these expressions the plural meaning is 
sufficiently indicated by the preceding numeral. 

Exercise 127 

(Dictation Exercise) 
Write the Plural of the following nouns: 

(1) Deer, trout, grouse. 

(2) Apple, peach, rose, box, bush, grass. 

(3) Ox, child, tooth, goose, mouse, woman. 

(4) Mary, George, Harry, Miss Clark, Mr. Brown, Dr. 
Young. 

(5) German, Dutchman, Frenchman, Brahman, Mormon. 
Mussulman, Ottoman, talisman. 

(6) Ally, chimney, fairy, baby, mystery, turkey, body, 
journey. 

(7) Chief, calf, dwarf, fife, elf, grief, gulf, half, hoof, 
knife, leaf, loaf, roof, sheaf, shelf, strife, thief, wife, wolf. 

(8) Buffalo, echo, canto, volcano, portfolio, banjo, 
dynamo, solo, memento, mosquito, bamboo, negro, hero, 
chromo. 

(9) Man-of-war, goose-quill, spoonful, commander-in- 
chief, major-general, man-servant. 



176 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

(10) Court-yard, court-martial, father-in-law, step-son, 
forget-me-not, bill-of-fare, looker-on, knight-errant. 

107. Two Plurals. We say " There are big fish 
in the lake/ 7 using fish in a plural, collective sense; 
and we also speak of "The story of the three .fishes" 
having in mind a story about three separate fish. 
From this it appears that some nouns have two plu- 
rals, which differ in meaning. The following is a list : 

Singular. Plural. 

brother brothers (by birth), brethren (of a society), 

cloth cloths (of different kinds), clothes (garments). 

die dies (for coining or stamping), dice (for play), 

fish fishes (separate objects), fish (collective), 

genius geniuses (persons of great ability), genii (spirits), 

index indexes (in books), indices (in algebra), 

penny pennies (separate coins), pence (sum of money), 

shot shots (discharges), shot (balls). 

Exercise 128 

Distinguish in meaning between: 

i. How many shot (shots) did you count? 

2. The story tells of two genii (geniuses). 

3. He gave the beggar six pennies (pence). 

4. He showed me some new cloths (clothes). 

5. I have two handfuls (hands full) of gold dust. 

A 6. He was always kind to his brothers (brethren). 

7. Two dice (dies) were found in the prisoner's pockets. 

8. He carried two pailfuls (pails full) of water up the hill. 

9. There are serious errors in the indexes (indices) in 
this new algebra. 

10. These fish (fishes) are good to eat. 



OF NOUNS 



177 



108. Foreign Plurals. Some nouns of foreign 
origin have peculiar foreign plurals. In the following 
list of such nouns, when two plural forms are given 
for the same noun, the English plural is preferable: 



Singular 


Plural 


Singular 


Plural 


alumna 
(feminine 


alumnae 

) 


formula 


J formulas 
\ formulae 


alumnus 


alumni 




( geniuses (persons 


(masculine) 


genius 


1 of great ability) 
[ genii (spirits) 


analysis 


analyses 




animalculum animalcula 


genus ("class") genera 


antithesis 


antitheses 






bacterium 


bacteria 


hypothesis 


hypotheses 


bandit 


f bandits 
I banditti 


, ( memorandums 
memorandum < , 
L memoranda 






oasis 


oases 


bpfin 


f beaus 
\ beaux 


parenthesis parentheses 


ucau 


phenomenon phenomena 


cherub 


f cherubs 
\ cherubim 


seraph 


{ seraphs 
\ seraphim 


crisis 


crises 


stratum 


strata 


curriculum 


curricula 


tableau 


tableaux 


datum 


data 

Exe 


thesis 
rcise 129 


theses 




(Dicta 


tion Exercise) 


1. Write the Plural c 


/•• 




(1) alumna 


(8) da 


turn 


(15) parenthesis 


(2) analysis 


(9) fo ] 


rmula 


(16) phenomenon 


(3) bandit 


(10) ge 


nius 


(17) seraph 


(4) beau 


(11) ge 


nus 


(18) stratum 


(5) cherub 


(12) by 


pothesis 


(19) synopsis 


(6) crisis 


(13) oa 


sis 


(20) tableau 


(7) curriculum (14) ne 


bula 


(21) thesis 



178 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

2. Write the Singular of: 



(i) alumni 

(2) bacteria 

(3) cherubim 

(4) curricula 



(5) data 

(6) genera 

(7) oases 

(8) phenomena 



(9) strata 

(10) theses 

(11) alumnae 

(12) parentheses 



Exercise 130 

Write sentences containing the Plural of the fol- 
lowing words, first consulting a dictionary for their 
meaning: 



(1) ally 

(2) canto 

(3) crisis 

(4) curriculum 



(5) elf 

(6) genus 

(7) hypothesis 

(8) memento 



(9) phenomenon 

(10) solo 

(11) talisman 

(12) aide-de-camp 1 



109. Divided Usage. Some singular nouns look 
like plurals, e.g., alms; and some plural nouns are 
singular in sense, e.g., measles. In regard to such 
nouns custom is divided, treating them at one time 
as singulars and at another as plurals. 

The following are generally treated as singular: 
amends, gallows, news, the United States, mathematics, 
optics, and other words in "-ics," except athletics, 
which is generally plural. 

The following are generally treated as plural: 
ashes, assets, dregs, eaves, nuptials, oats, pincers, 
proceeds, riches, scissors, shears, suds, tongs, trousers, 
victuals, vitals. 



l To the Teacher. This exercise may be extended at discretion by 
selecting additional words from the lists in Sections 106-108. 



OF NOUNS 179 

For further information on cases of doubtful 
usage a large dictionary must be consulted. 

Exercise 131 

Which of the italicized forms is preferable? 

(1) The dregs was (were) bitter. 

(2) The assets of the company is (are) $223,000. 

(3) Please pour this (these) suds on the rose bed. 

(4) Where did you get this (these) scissors? 

(5) Why was this (were these) ashes dumped here? 

(6) In many schools athletics is (are) carried too far. 

(7) His riches has (have) taken to itself (themselves) wings. 

(8) Mathematics is (are) harder for some persons than 
for others. 

(9) The proceeds of the lecture was (were) given to the 
Orphan Asylum. 

(10) The United States had informed Spain of its (their) 
intention regarding Cuba. 

Exercise 132 

To the Teacher. In doing this exercise the fact that the number of 
verbs and pronouns has not yet been treated in this book will cause no 
difficulty to pupils who can speak English. 

Write sentences illustrating the number of the fol- 
lowing nouns: 

news oats shears • tongs trousers 

IV. CASE 

110. Case Defined. In the sentence "John has 
given Henry Annie's pencil," each of the four nouns 



180 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

bears a peculiar relation to other words. Three of 
them are related to the verb: "John," as subject, 
"pencil," as direct object, "Henry," as indirect 
object. "Annie's" is related to "pencil" by showing 
ownership — a relation indicated by the suffix "'s." 

The form or use of a noun or pronoun that shows 
its relation to other words is called Case. 

A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a verb 
is said to be in the Nominative Case. 

The form of a noun or pronoun that shows pos- 
session is called the Possessive Case. 1 

A noun or pronoun used as the direct object of a 
verb is said to be in the Objective Case. 

In Old English the relations of subject, direct object, 
indirect object, and ownership, were often indicated, as in 
Latin and Greek, by special forms of the noun, called Cases. 
After the Norman Conquest these forms fell into disuse, 
and nouns in modern English retain only one relic of them, 
namely, the Possessive (Annie's). With the single ex- 
ception of the "V denoting ownership or possession, the 
relation of a noun to the other parts of a sentence is now 
shown mainly by its position; and English nouns have only 
two forms, i.e., the Common form, and the Possessive 
(or Genitive). 

But though most of the forms have disappeared, the 
names of some of them have been retained to denote uses 
which the forms used to show. For example, in the sentence 
"John has given Henry Annie's pencil," we still say "John" 
is in the Nominative case, referring to its use as subject of 
the verb; and we might well say that "Henry" is in the 

iThe Report of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature recommends that 
Genitive be substituted for Possessive, because (i) the case has other uses than to denote 
possession, and (2) "Genitive" is the term used in other languages. This substitution 
can be easily made by teacher and pupil if the school authorities desire. See the next 
footnote. 



OF NOUNS 181 

Dative case, and "pencil" in the Accusative. But since 
the dative and accusative cases are now never distinct in 
form, English grammars have long merged them into one 
case called the Objective. 

The English nominative and objective cases, being always 
alike in nouns, might easily be merged into one if it were 
not for the fact that in pronouns these cases have distinct 
forms: as, / help him, and he helps me. 1 

The function of case forms may be well illustrated by 
reference to a line from Gray's "Elegy": "And all the air a 
solemn stillness holds." Critics cannot agree as to whether 
"air" or "stillness" is the subject of this sentence; that is, 
whether the poet meant that the air contained stillness or 
that stillness held fast the air. In Latin or Greek there 
could be no doubt, because the form of the words would 
show which was subject and which object. 

Definition. Case is the form or use of a noun or 
pronoun that shows its relation to other words. 

Definition. The nominative case of a noun or 
pronoun is its form or use as the subject of a verb. 

Definition. The possessive case of a noun or 
pronoun is the form used to denote possession. 

ir rhe Report of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomenclature suggests that 
Common and Genitive be the only terms used for case-forms in English nouns; but for 
pronouns it suggests that the only case-forms recognized be the Nominative and 
Accusative-Dative. "His," "her," "its," "my," "whose," and other similar forms, are 
all to be called Possessive Pronouns or Possessive Adjectives. For case-uses, both 
nouns and pionouns, the Report recommends the terms Nominative, Accusative, Dative 
and Genitive. 

How far this, proposed nomenclature will be acceptable to our schools instead of the 
traditional Nominative, Possessive, and Objective is uncertain; therefore, for the pres- 
ent, it seems best to adhere to the terms familiar to all English grammarians, with the 
possible and easy exception of genitive for possessive. 

The author cordially approves the following "two recommendations" of the Joint 
Committee ("Report," p. 14): 

"First. That attention be directed, in the ordinary class-room work of analysis, upon 
the function of a given noun or pronoun in the sentence rather than upon its case-form. 

"Second. That the names used for case-functions in English work be: nominative, 
accusative, dative, genitive." _ 

These two recommendations can be easily adopted by users of this book by substitu- 
ting for Objective the terms Accusative or Dative, as the case may be. 



182 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Definition. The objective case of a noun or 
pronoun is its form or use as the direct object of a 
l verb. 1 

Exercise 133 

Tell the Case of each noun in Exercise 17. 

111. Form of the Possessive Case. In the 

singular number the possessive case of nouns is 
formed, as a rule, by adding an apostrophe and 
"s" ('s): as, "The boy's coat." 



Often the pronunciation of the added "s" forms a new 
syllable. If this additional syllable makes an unpleasant 
sound, the "s" is omitted, but the apostrophe is retained: 
as, "For goodness' sake." If the "s" is sounded, it is always 
written; and if it is written, it should be pronounced in 
reading. The putting in or the leaving out of the "s" in 
such cases is chiefly a matter of taste. Whenever there is 
doubt it is well to add the "s" : as, " Horace's odes," "Charles's 
ball," "Dickens's 'David Copperfield.' " 

In the plural number, when the plural already 
ends in "s," the possessive case is formed by adding 
an apostrophe alone ('): as, "Boys' shoes." 

The plural possessive of those few nouns whose plural 
does not end in "s" is formed, as in the singular number, 
by adding an apostrophe and "s" ('s): as, "Men's shoes." 

The possessive case of compound nouns and expressions 
used as compound nouns is formed by adding the proper 
sign of the possessive to the end of the compound: as, 
"That is my sister-in-law's pony"; "This is the Prince of 
Wales's palace." 

lOther uses of the Objective Case will be treated later. 



OF NOUNS 



183 



When two or more persons possess a thing in common, 
the sign of the possessive is attached to the last name only: 
as, "John and Mary's home." 

Separate ownership is indicated by adding the sign of 
the possessive to each name : as, "Alice's and Jessie's dresses." 

In forming the possessive of "anybody else" and "who 
else" usage is somewhat divided and inconsistent. The 
weight of good usage seems to incline to "anybody else's"; 
but, on the other hand, we usually say "whose else." 

Exercise 134 

Write opposite each other the Possessive Case, 
singular and plural, of the following nouns: 



1. King 


6. Mouse 


11. Monkey 


16. Deer 


2. Dog 


7. Actor 


12. Prince 


17. Goose 


3. Day 


8. Eagle 


13. Princess 


18. Man 


4. Wolf 


9. Horse 


14. Wife 


19. Ox 


5 . Fox 


10. Lady 


15. Child 


20. Woman 



Exercise 135 

Use the Possessive Case, singular and plural, of the 
following nouns, in sentences of your own: 

1. Calf 2. Farmer 3. Fairy 4. Witness 5. Thief 

Exercise 136 

Write the Possessive Case of: 

6. Harper & Brothers 



1. James 

2. Dickens 

3. Newson & Co. 

4. Father-in-law 

5. Frederick the Great 



7. His sister Mary 

8. Charles 

9. Man-of-war 

10. Henry the Eighth 



1 84 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

112. Declension. We are now prepared to draw 
up a scheme of the inflection of any English noun 
for number and case : thus, 





Singular 


Plural 


Singular 


Plural 


Nom. — Obj.: 


man 


men 


dog 


dogs 


Possessive: 


man's 


men's 


dog's 


dogs' 



The inflection of words for number and case, 
arranged in order, is called Declension. 

When we give the declension of a word we are 
said to Decline it. 

Definition. Declension is the orderly arrange- 
ment of the inflection of words for number and case. 

Exercise 137 

Decline the following nouns: 



calf 


deer 


Henry 


lady 


mouse 


child 


fox 


James 


monkey 


ox 



V. Construction 

113. Construction Defined. In the study of 
sentences, the most important question about a 
noun, or any other part of speech, is its relation to 
the other words of the sentence, i.e., its use or 
function in the sentence. 

The relation of a word to the rest of the sentence 
is called its Construction (Latin, "putting to- 
gether"). 

x To the Teacher. Since the only difficulty in declining nouns lies in 
the writing of the possessive case, the declension of nouns should always 
be a written exercise. 



OF NOUNS 185 

Definition. The construction of a word is its 
relation to the rest of the sentence. 

114. Uses of the Nominative Case. A noun is 
in the nominative case when it is used in any of the 
following constructions : 

1. Subject: The day is past and gone. 

2. Predicate noun (Subjective complement): To-morrow is 
the appointed day. 

3. Vocative (Address): Come, day, and chase the shadows 
of the night. 

4. Exclamation: O happy day! The battle's won. 

5. Nominative absolute (223): Day breaking in the east, 
we started. 

115. Uses of the Objective Case. A noun is in 
the objective case when it is used in any of the 
following constructions : 

1. Direct object: I've lost a day. 

2. Objective complement: God called the light day. 

3. With a preposition: Rome was net built in a day. 

4. Adverbial: We waited a day. 

5. Indirect object: Give every day its task. (Dative Case.) 

6. Secondary object (53): Mother taught me the days 
and months. 

7. Retained object (188): He was given a day to 
think it over. 

8. Subject of infinitive (230) : I believed the day to be 
favorable. 

9. Predicate noun after an infinitive: I know this to be the 
appointed day. 



186 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Exercise 138 

Analyze the following sentences so as to show the 
Construction and Case of each noun: 

Models. See Pages 62-64, 69, 83-85, and 87. 

1. Habit is second nature. 

2. Every day brings its work. 

3. Have two strings to your bow. 

4. Example is better than precept. 

5. Modesty is the beauty of women. 

6. Immodest words admit of no defense. 

7. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. 

8. Hunger drives the wolf from the woods. 

9. In every country the sun riseth in the morning. 
10. In the mouth of a bad dog falls often a good bone. 

Exercise 139 

Make a list of the nouns in the following sentences, 
and tell the Construction and Case of each noun: 

1. In each duty lies a beauty, 

If your eyes you do not shut, 
Just as surely and securely, 
As a kernel in a nut. 

2. Constant sunshine, howe'er welcome, 

Ne'er would ripen fruit or flower; 

Giant oaks owe half their greatness 

To the scathing tempest's power. 



OF NOUNS 187 

3. O columbine! open your folded wrapper, 

Where two twin turtle-doves dwell. 
O cuckoo-pint! toll me the purple clapper 
That hangs in your clear green bell. 

4. The star-buds blossom in the night, 
And love the moon's calm, tender light ; 
But daisies bloom out in the day, 

And watch the strong sun on his way. 

5. When Washington declined a military escort on the 
occasion of his inauguration (1789), he said, "I require no 
guard but the affections of the people." 

Exercise 140 

(Review) 
Tell the Construction of each noun in Exercise 13. 

Exercise 141 

Write ten sentences illustrating ten ways in which 
nouns may be used. {It is not necessary to use the 
same noun.) 

116. Uses of the Possessive Case. The possessive 
case is used to denote two relations: 

1. Possession: John's cap is gray. 

2. Connection: One day's march brought them to the sea. 

117. Possessive vs. Preposition. It is some- 
times a question whether to use the possessive case 
or a phrase beginning with "of," i.e. } whether to say 



188 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

"Arnold's treason" or "the treason of Arnold." The 
tendency of the best modern usage is to confine the 
possessive case to nouns denoting living beings, and 
with them to use it only in instances of actual or 
imagined possession: as, "Arnold's sword/' "the 
treason of Arnold." Yet some short phrases, like 
"a week's wages," "a day's march," "a dollar's 
worth," "at death's door," "for pity's sake," are 
supported by the best usage. 

With pronouns still greater latitude is allowed. No one 
hesitates to write "on our account," "in my absence," "to 
their credit," "for my sake," "in his defense." 

The possessive case and a phrase introduced by 
"of" are not always exact equivalents. For instance, 
"John's story" means a story told by John; but a 
"story of John" means a story about John. 

Exercise 142 

Use one of the nouns in each of the following pairs 
in the Possessive Case, or use the preposition "of" 
with it. Give the reason for your choice : 

i. Witness, testimony. 
Model. "Testimony of the witness," because the witness 
is not thought of as possessing the testimony. 

2. Horse, hoof. 7. Paris, siege. 

3. Delmonico, restaurant. 8. Book, cover. 

4. Charles the Second, reign. 9. Princess,evening gowns. 

5. Henry the Eighth, wives. 10. Spain, navy. 

6. Teacher, advice. 11. Napoleon, banishment. 



OF NOUNS 189 

12. Napoleon, camp-chest. 17. Cat, claws. 

13. Demosthenes, orations. 18. Enemy, repulse. 

14. Webster, orations. 19. Major Andre, capture. 

15. Gunpowder, invention. 20. Mountain, top. 

16. General, horse. 21. Summer, end. 

Exercise 143 

Distinguish in meaning between the following: 

1. Mother's love. Love of mother. 

2. A sister's care. Care of a sister. 

3. Ethel's drawing. A drawing of EtheL 

4. Charles and Harry's toys. Charles's and Harry's toys. 

5. Admiral Dewey's reception. The reception of Ad- 
miral Dewey. 

118. Double Possessive. The sentence, "Let 
me tell you a story of Doctor Brown's," contains 
a double possessive ("of Doctor Brown's"), in which 
we use both the possessive case, after the manner of 
Old English, and the preposition "of," after the 
manner of Norman-French. Though this double 
possessive cannot be logically justified, it is never- 
theless recognized by the best writers as good Eng- 
lish. Moreover, it is often convenient; as when it 
enables us to distinguish between "a story of Doctor 
Brown" and "a story of Doctor Brown's." Other 
examples are: 

That boy of yours. 

A friend of my brother's. 

O speak good of the Lord, all ye works of his. 



ioo THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

119. Case in Apposition. Nouns in apposition 
are said to be in the same case. But when the nouns 
are in the possessive, the sign of possession is usually 
attached only to one of them: as, "Jack the Giant 
Killer's boots." (in). 

120. Substitutes for Nouns. Words or groups of 
words that are not commonly classed as nouns are 
often used in the constructions of nouns, as follows : 

(i) Pronoun: I see him. 

(2) Adjective: I did my best. 

(3) Adverb: Now is the accepted time. 

(4) Phrase: "Ay, ay, sirV burst from a thousand throats. 

(5) Clause: What you want is not here. 

(6) Infinitive: To delay is fatal. 

121. How to Parse Nouns. When we describe 
a word as it stands in a sentence, we are said to 
Parse it. To parse a word we must give a description 
of its class, form, and use. 

To parse a noun completely we must give its: 

(1) Class. 

(2) Number. 

(3) Gender. 

(4) Case. 

(5) Construction. 

Of these, number and construction are by far the 
most important. 1 

x To the Teacher. The Report of the Joint Committee on Gram- 
matical Nomenclature recommends (p. 13) that in the ordinary work 



OF NOUNS 191 

Model. Maud Muller on a summer's day 

Raked the meadows sweet with hay. 

1. Maud Muller is a proper noun, singular number, 
feminine gender, nominative case, subject of the verb 
"raked." 

2. Summer's is a common noun, singular number, neuter 
gender, possessive case, modifying "day." 

3. Day is a common noun, singular number, neuter gender, 
objective case, used with the preposition "on." 

4. Meadows is a common noun, plural number, neuter 
gender, objective case, direct object of "raked." 

5. Hay is a common noun, singular number, neuter 
gender, objective case, used with the preposition "with." 

Exercise 144 

Parse the Nouns in the following sentences: 

I. 

1. My sister is five years old. 

2. Grumbling makes the loaf no larger. 

3. Let us make these enemies friends. 

4. The crowd gave the rescuer three cheers. 

5. Words and feathers the wind carries away. 

6. Help which is long on the road is no help. 

7. Little troubles are great to little people. 

8. Talking comes by nature ; silence by wisdom. 

9. The strength of a chain is its weakest link. 

10. Kill not the goose that lays the golden eggs. 

of sentence-analysis, the classification of nouns as common, proper, 
collective, masculine, feminine, and neuter be not dwelt on, lest grammar 
work become mechanical and wearying. In the following exercises the 
teacher should tellj the pupils whether complete parsing is desired, or 
only number, case, and construction. 



192 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

II. 

ii. A reckless boy gives his parents great anxiety. 

12. The Constitution has made America a great nation. 

13. One good mother is worth a hundred schoolmasters. 

14. The High School boys made William captain of the 
team. 

1 5 . Merry is the feast-making till we come to the reckoning. 

16. Patience is a flower that grows not in * everyone's 
garden. 

17. The farmer's wife brought berries to town three times 
a week. 

18. Whether the pitcher strikes the stone or the stone 
the pitcher, it is bad for the pitcher. 

19. His harp, his sole remaining joy, 
Was carried by an orphan boy. 

20. Listen, my children, and you shall hear 
Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere. 



Exercise 145 

Parse the Nouns in the following selections: 

1. The morn was fair, the skies were clear, 

No breath came o'er the sea. 

2. From the treetops sang the bluebird, 
Sang the bluebird, the Owaissa. 

3. Give me that man 

That is not passion's slave, and I will wear him 
In my heart's core; aye, in my heart of hearts. 



OF NOUNS 193 

4. About two hundred yards from the school a small 
brook crossed the road and ran through a thickly wooded 
glen, where it tumbled noisily over rocks till it entered a 
beautiful lake, known by its Indian name, Wononsco. 

5. Times grew worse and worse with Rip Van Winkle as 
years of matrimony rolled on; a tart temp.er never mellows 
with age, and a sharp tongue is the only edged tool that 
grows keener with constant use. 



Exercise 146 1 

Parse the Nouns in the following selection: 

A FAREWELL. 

My fairest child, I have no song to give you; 

No lark could pipe to skies so dull and gray; 
Yet, ere we part, one lesson I can leave you 

For every day. 



'. 



Be good, sweet maid, and let who will be clever; 

Do noble things, not dream them, all day long; 
And so make life, death, and that vast forever 

One grand sweet song. — Charles Kingsley. 



1 To the Teacher. Easy exercises in the parsing of nouns are to be 
found in the paragraphs of any reader or piece of literature; and such 
exercises should be used freely, partly to secure additional drill, and 
partly to show the pupil that grammar is not a detached study. 

The passages in Exercises 146 and 147 show an unusual variety of 
noun constructions and present interesting exercises to bright or 
advanced pupils. For some pupils they may prove too hard. Tedium 
may be avoided by requiring pupils to give only the number, case and 
construction of each noun. 



i 9 4 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Exercise 147 1 

(For Advanced Pupils) 
Parse the Nouns in the following selection: 

EVENING IN PARADISE. 

Now came still Evening on, and Twilight gray 
Had in her sober livery all things clad; 
Silence accompanied; for beast and bird, 
They to their grassy couch, these to their nests, 
Were slunk, all but the wakeful nightingale; 
She all night long her amorous descant sung: 
Silence was pleased. Now glowed the firmament 
With living sapphires; Hesperus, that led 
The starry host, rode brightest, till the moon, 
Rising in clouded majesty, at length 
Apparent queen, unveiled her peerless light, 
And o'er the dark her silver mantle threw; 
When Adam thus to Eve: "Fair consort, the hour 
Of night, and all things now retired to rest, 
Mind us of like repose, since God hath set 
Labor and rest, as day and night, to men 
Successive; and the timely dew of sleep, 
Now falling with soft slumberous weight, inclines 
Our eyelids. Other creatures all day long 
Rove idle, unemployed, and less need rest; 
Man hath his daily work of body or mind 
Appointed, which declares his dignity, 
And the regard of Heaven on all his ways; 
While other animals unactive range, 
And of their doings God takes no account." 

— Milton: "Paradise Lost." 



See footnote to preceding page. 



CHAPTER IV 

OF PRONOUNS 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun (81). 

The Antecedent of a pronoun is the word or group 
of words for which it stands (81). 

The antecedent of a pronoun is often not 
expressed. 

Many pronouns have either a substantive or an adjective 
use. In their substantive use they are to be called Pronouns. 
In their adjective use they are to be called Pronominal 
Adjectives: as, 

Pronoun: This is my hat. 

Pronominal Adjective: This hat is mine. 

The classification of my, thy, our, your, his, her, its, their, 
whose presents a difficulty. Historically, the first four are 
adjectives, the others genitive case-forms. In modern 
English, this distinction does not appear. Since many of 
these words always modify nouns, many grammarians call 
them Possessive Adjectives. But his and whose are often 
used substantively, and the related words mine, thine, ours, 
yours, hers and theirs are never adjectives in ordinary modern 
English. Therefore it seems equally appropriate to call 
them all Pronouns, in the possessive (or genitive) case. See 
Sections no, footnote, and 133. 

I. Personal Pronouns 

122. Person. In the sentence, "I, John, was in 
the isle Patmos," "John" names the speaker; in 

I9S 



196 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

"John, please come here," "John" names the person 
spoken to; in "John has come," "John" names the 
person spoken of. 

The distinction between words as denoting the 
person speaking, spoken to, or spoken of, is called 
Person. 

A noun or pronoun that denotes the person speak- 
ing is in the First Person. 

A noun or pronoun that denotes the person or 
thing spoken to is in the Second Person. 

A noun or pronoun that denotes a person or thing 
spoken of is in the Third Person. 

Definition. Person is the distinction between 
words as denoting the person speaking, the person 
or thing spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. 

Nouns do not change in form to denote person; and most 
nouns are in the third person. The distinction of Person has 
importance only in connection with pronouns and verbs. 

123. Personal Pronouns Defined. Examine the 
pronouns in the following sentence: 

I have lost my pencil; please lend me yours till you need 
it yourself. 

"I," "my," and "me," stand for the person 
speaking, and cannot be used to refer to the person 
spoken to or spoken of. "You," "yours," and 
"yourself" stand only for the person spoken to. 
"It" is used only for a thing spoken of. 



OF PRONOUNS 197 

Pronouns that distinguish between the person 
speaking, the person spoken to, and the person or 
thing spoken of are called Personal Pronouns. 

Definition. A personal pronoun is a pronoun 
that denotes the person speaking, the person spoken 
to, or the person or thing spoken of. 

Personal pronouns are so called, not because they stand 
for persons, but because they mark grammatical person (122). 

Exercise 148 

Fill the following blanks with Personal Pronouns 
and tell what they stand for: 

1. Barbara has lost -* — needle. 

2. was sewing with 

3. Perhaps -^ — has fallen under chair. 

4. Let all look under chairs. 

5. has thread in - — . 

Exercise 149 

Make a list of the Personal Pronouns in Exercises 
22 and 36, and tell of each whether it is of the Fir sty 
Second, or Third Person. 

Exercise 150 

Write ten sentences using at least ten of the fol- 
lowing Personal Pronouns: 

I my me we our 

us mine her you your 

he she it they ours 

their them him his hers 



ig8 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

124. Personal Pronouns of the First Person. 

Fill the blanks with personal pronouns representing 
(i) a boy speaking, (2) a girl speaking, and note the 
differences, if there are any: 



know Mary. Mary knows — — . Mary is — 

cousin. The pen she is using is . 



Fill each of the following blanks with a pronoun 
representing the speaker and some others: 

love Carlo. Carlo loves -""'' . Carlo is — ^— dog. 



Yes, he is -* — . 

You observe that personal pronouns of the first 
person differ according to their number and case. 

Tabulating the forms used in filling the blanks, 
we find that the personal pronoun of the first 
person is thus declined: 



lar Plural 

Nominative: 1 I we 

Possessive: 1 my, mine our, ours 

Objective: me us 

Some of these forms are really fragments of different words, 
and not true inflections. But they serve the same purpose as 
inflections. 

"I" is always written as a capital letter. 

The plural forms represent, not two or more speakers, but 
the speaker and others for whom he speaks. Sometimes they 

iSee pages 180 and 181, footnotes. 



OF PRONOUNS 199 

are used by an editor or a sovereign to refer to himself alone : 
as, 

Editor: We are sure we voice the sentiments of the people. 
King Duncan: This castle hath a pleasant seat; the air 
Nimbly and sweetly recommends itself 
Unto our gentle senses. 
This is called the "editorial" or "majestic" use of we. 

125. Uses of the Nominative Forms. The nom- 
inative forms of personal pronouns are used mainly 
in the following constructions: 

1. Subject of a verb: as, "7 am young"; "We are coming"; 
"He fell"; "She laughed"; "They live in New Orleans." 

2. Predicate pronoun {Subjective complement): as, "Is it 
I?" "It was not we"; "Was it he?" "I think it was she"; 
"No, it was they" 

3. Vocative: as, "O thou who hearest prayer." 

4. Nominative absolute: as, "He being there, we said 
nothing about it" (223). 

126. Uses of the Objective Forms. The objective 
forms of the personal pronouns are used mainly in 
the following constructions: 

1. Direct object: as, "Help us, O Lord." 

2. Indirect object: as, "Give me your hand." (Dative Case.) 

3. With a preposition: as, "Show it to them." 

4. Subject of infinitive: as, "Did you see him fall?" (230). 

5. Predicate pronoun after an infinitive: as, "He knew it 
to be me." 

Exclamations. — In exclamations either the nominative or 
the objective is used: as, "O, unhappy Ii" "O, wretched me!" 



200 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Note. In the middle of the sixteenth cenf iiry the dis- 
tinction between the nominative and the objective began 
to break down, and "me," "thee," "us," "you," "him," 
"her," and "them" were often treated as nominatives. In 
the case of "ye" and "you" this confusion became perma- 
nently established in the language, "you" being now the regu- 
lar form for both nominative and objective. In the other 
pronouns the original distinction between the cases gradually 
reasserted itself, and is, perhaps, more strongly insisted on 
now than at any period since the sixteenth century. 1 

The case of "you" and "it," which have the same form for 
both nominative and objective, must be determined from the 
construction. 

Exercise 151 

(For Dictation) 

Decline the Personal Pronoun of the First Person, 
singular and plural. 

Exercise 152 2 

Insert the proper form of Pronoun in each blank, 
and give tho reason for your choice. If in doubt, 
consult Sections 125 and 126. 

. /, me. 

1. Who will go? — — . 

2. He is taller than — — . 



!T. R. Lounsbury: History of the English Language. 

2 To the Teacher» In order that both eye and ear may be trained 
in correct forms of expression, it is a good plan, after the blanks in this 
and similar exercises have been filled, to write on the board such sen- 
tences as give pupils trouble, and to have them read aloud again and 
again. 

Another helpful exercise to the same end is to let pupils repeat rap- 
idly such forms as "It is I," "It is not we," "Is it I?" etc., using in 
succession the affirmative, interrogative, and negative forms of the verb. 



OF PRONOUNS 201 

3. He is not so old as . 

4. Wait for Helen and . 

5. She knew that it was . 

6. She will come, and too. 

7. You and — i — will go together. 

8. May Annie and — ^— go home? 

9. It was that gave the alarm. 

10. If you were — — , would you go? 

11. Will you go with John and — — ? 

12. Jessie gave Roy and — — a kitten. 

13. Yes, you and were both invited. 

14. It makes no difference to you or . 

15. She invited you and to go driving. 

16. Everyone is going except you and . 

17. The kite was made for Harry and . 

18. Father expects you or to meet him. 

19. Between you and , he is losing his mind. 

20. Dr. Holmes shook hands with the girls, among 

the rest. 

Exercise 153 

Insert the proper form of Pronoun in each blank , 
and, give the reason for your choice: 

We, us. 

1. He knew it was -A — . 

2. ^--^- boys are going swimming. 

3. They play gplf more than . 

4. They knew that as well as . 



5. Everybody was late except 

6. Our parents are wiser than 



/■j^ 



The Smiths are going, and — — too. 



202 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

8. The Browns, as well as - — , are invited. 

9. That is new doctrine among ' ■ Americans. 

10. He took, a picture of - t ^ £ — girls sitting in the boat. 

Exercise 154 

Write five sentences containing different forms of 
the Personal Pronouns of the First Person. 

127. Personal Pronouns of the Second Person. 
In the following selections examine the pronouns 
that stand for the persons spoken to: 

Biblical 

Singular. Rejoice, O young man, in thy youth; and let 
thy heart cheer thee in the days of thy youth, and walk in 
the ways of thine heart, and in the sight of thine eyes : but 
know thou, that for all these things God will bring thee into 
judgment. 

Plural. Ye stand this day all of you before the Lord your 
God. . . . Blessed are ye poor, for yours is the kingdom of 
God. 

Poetic 

Singular. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue Ocean — roll! 
Ten thousand fleets sweep over thee in vain; 
Man marks the earth with ruin — his control 
Stops with the shore;— upon the watery plain 
The wrecks are all thy deed. 

Time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow, — 
Such as creation's dawn beheld, thou rollest now. 

Plural. Ye crags and peaks, I'm with you once again. 



OF PRONOUNS 203 

Ordinary Prose 

Singular. Young gentleman, your spirit is too bold for 
your years. I pray you, give over this attempt. It requires 
greater strength than yours. 

Plural. Come early, girls; and if you feel like it, bring 
your mandolins ; I want to hear you play. 

These selections show that the pronouns used to 
represent the person spoken to differ according to 
the character of the language employed. In the 
Biblical and poetical passages they are, for the 
singular, "thou," "thy," "thine," and "thee," ac- 
cording to the case; for the plural, "ye," "your," 
"yours," and "you." In the ordinary prose pas- 
sages they are, for both singular and plural, "you," 
"your," and "yours." Tabulating these forms, we 
may say that the personal pronoun of the second 
person is thus declined: 

Biblical and Poetic Ordinary 



Singular Plural Singular and Plural 

Nominative: thou ye you 

Possessive: thy, thine your, yours your, yours 

Objective: thee you you 

The forms marked "Biblical and Poetic" were once the 
ordinary forms. In course of time, however, a peculiar 
distinction grew up between the singular and the plural 
forms. The singular forms were used in the language of 
affectionate intimacy or superiority; the language of 
politeness or respect employed the plural forms. This dis- 
tinction became stronger and stronger, until now "thou," 



204 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

"thy," "thine," and "thee" are no longer used in ordinary 
conversation, except by members of the Society of Friends. 
"Ye" has been displaced by "you" through a confusion of 
nominative and objective (126, Note), 

Since "you," which is now the common pronoun of address, 
is really a plural word, it takes a plural verb when it is a 
subject, even though only one person is addressed: as, 
"You were mistaken, Edith" (not "You was"). 

Exercise 155 

(For Dictation) 

Decline the Personal Pronoun of the Second Person 
in (1) the ordinary form; (2) the Biblical and Poetic 
form. 

Exercise 156 

Write five sentences containing forms of the Per- 
sonal Pronoun of the Second Person used in ordinary 
discourse. 

128. Personal Pronouns of the Third Person. 

Fill the blanks with personal pronouns representing 
(1) a boy spoken of, (2) a girl spoken of, (3) a tree 
spoken of: 

is ten years old. I do not know height. I often 



go to see . 

Fill the blank in the following sentence with a 
pronoun referring to (1) a boy spoken of, (2) a girl 
spoken of: 

This book is . 



OF PRONOUNS 



205 



Fill the blanks in the following sentences with 
pronouns representing (1) two or more boys spoken 
of, (2) two or more girls spoken of, (3) two or more 
trees spoken of: 



are each ten years old. I do not know heights. 



I often go to see 



Fill the blank in the following sentence with a 
pronoun referring to (1) two or more boys spoken 
of, (2) two or more girls spoken of: 



These books are 



You observe that personal pronouns standing for 
persons or things spoken of vary with gender, number, 
and case. Tabulating the forms used in filling the 
blanks, we find that the personal pronouns of the 
third person are thus declined: 



Masculine 
Nominative: he 
Possessive: his 
Objective: him 



Singular— 

Feminine 

she 
her, hers 

her 



Neuter 
it 
its 
it 



<— Plural^ 

All Genders 

they 
their, theirs 
them 



Exercise 157 

(For Dictation) 

Decline the Personal Pronouns of the Third Person 
in all genders, and both numbers. 



206 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Exercise 158 

Insert the proper form of Pronoun in each blank, 
and give the reason for your choice: 

He, him. 
i. I knew it was . 

2. I saw John and . 

3. Was it ? 

4. It must have been . 

5. that is idle, reprove. 

6. His sister is darker than . 

7. If I were , I wouldn't go. 

8. Whom can I trust, if not ? 

9. and James played together. 

10. What were you and talking about? 

11. Was it who objected to our going? 

12. To William and — — belongs all the credit. 

13. It makes no difference to either you or . 

14. I shook hands with all, among the rest. 

15. Not many could have played as well as . 



16. Have you ever seen Fred and — — together? 

17. What else can you expect from such as ? 

18. There isn't much difference between you and . 

19. who can answer this question may do so. 

20. that overcometh will I make a pillar in the temple. 

Exercise 159 

Insert the proper form of Pronoun in each blank, 
and give the reason for your choice: 

She, her. 

1. I am stronger than . 

2. It was or her sister. 



OF PRONOUNS 207 



3. I wouldn't go if I were . 

4. and Constance sang a duet. 

5. Was it that came yesterday? 

6. When will you and come again? 

7. Father told you and to stay here. 

8. Grace and met at dancing school. 

9. I invited them all, among the rest. 

10. With Edith and I have no trouble. 

11. Very few girls can play as well as . 

12. I supposed the tall, stately lady was 



13. What is the trouble between you and ? 

14. Everybody came except — — and her brother. 
i5._Have you ever seen Sarah and together? 



Exereise 160 

Insert the proper form of pronoun in each blank, 
and give the reason for your choice: 

They, them. 

1. It was . 

2. It must have been . 



3. I never saw Guy and together. 

4. that talk must stay after school. 

5. that talk I will keep after school. 

6. None so blind as that will not see. 

7. Their opponents were heavier than 



8. It makes no difference to either you or . 

9. It could not have been , for were at home. 

10. Few school-teachers could have done as well as 



2o8 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



Exercise 161 

Write ten sentences containing different forms of 
the Personal Pronouns of the Third Person. 

129. How to Parse Pronouns. To parse a pro- 
noun one must give its — 

(i) Class. 

(2) Antecedent (if it has one). 

(3) Person. 

(4) Number. 

(5) Gender. 

(6) Construction. 

(7) Case. 

Model. I saw him yesterday. 

1. 7 is a personal pronoun, first person, singular number, 
masculine or feminine gender, nominative case, subject of 
the verb saw. 

2. Him is a personal pronoun, third person, singular 
number, masculine gender, objective case, object of the 
verb saw. 

Exercise 162 

Parse each Personal Pronoun in Exercise 22; in 
Exercise 36; in Exercise 74. 

130. "It" as Impersonal Subject. Examine the 
following sentences: 

It rains. 

It is snowing. 

It is growing dark. 



OF PRONOUNS 209 

If we try to find the subjects of these sentences 
by asking "What rains?" "What is snowing?" 
"What is growing dark?" the only answer is "It." 
But "it" does not here denote any person or thing. 
Therefore it is called an Impersonal Subject, and 
the sentence is an Impersonal Sentence. 

Exercise 163 

Write five sentences of your own containing Im- 
personal Subjects. 

131. "It" Expletive. Compare the following sen- 
tences : 

(a) To find fault is easy, 
b) It is easy to find fault. 

In meaning these sentences are exactly alike, 
but they differ in form. The first sentence begins 
with the subject, "To find fault," which is followed 
by the predicate, "is easy." The second sentence 
begins with "it," followed immediately by the 
predicate, which in turn is followed by the subject. 
In such sentences the introductory word "it" adds 
nothing to the meaning, and is commonly called 
an Expletive (Latin, "filling up"). 

The effect of the second form is to shift the emphasis 
from the predicate to the subject. The sentence tells us, not 
so much that something is easy, as that what is easy is to 
find fault. Other examples are: "It is doubtful whether he 
will come." "It is certain that the sun spins like a top." 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



In such sentences, as in all sentences, the subject is in- 
variably the answer to the question formed by putting 
"who" or "what" before the predicate; as, in the sentences 
above, "What is certain?" "What is doubtful?" 



Exercise 164 

Tell the Subject and the Predicate of each of the 
following sentences: 



i. It is good to be here. 



Model for Oral Exercise. 
here"; the predicate is "is good." 



The subject is "to be 
"It" is an expletive. 



Model for Written Exercise : 



S. 
to be here 



P. 

is good 



E. 
It. 



2. It does not pay to worry. 

3. It is not all of life to live. 

4. It will not suit us to go with you. 

5. It is doubtful whether he can come. 

6. It is not good to wake a sleeping hound. 

7. It is certain that the sun spins like a top. 

8. It is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord. 

9. It was said by them of old time, Thou shalt not kill. 

10. It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope. 

11. It has been proved by actual measurement that the 
thread forming the cocoon of the silkworm is eleven miles 
long. 



OF PRONOUNS 



Exercise 165 



Write five sentences that begin with "it" Expletive , 
and underline the predicate of each, 

132. Other Special Uses of "It." The pronoun 
"it" has other special uses: 

(i) As substitute for a group of words: as, 

To cross the ocean was once a mighty undertaking; now 
it is a mere pleasure trip. 

I heard that he was coming, but I didn't believe it. 

(2) As impersonal object: as, 

They roughed it for two weeks. 

Thy mistress leads thee a dog's life of it. 

Exercise 166 

Tell the use of the pronoun "it" in each of the 
following sentences: 

1 . I won't go, and that's an end of it. 

2. It is excellent to have a giant's strength, but it is 
tyrannous to use it like a giant. 

3. There was nothing for it but to return. 

4. Come and trip it as you go. 

5. He deserved his punishment, and he knew it. 

6. Is it far to Chicago? 

7. Low-born men like to lord it over their inferiors. 

8. I will fight it out on this line if it takes all summer. 



212 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

9. // is growing dark fast; it will soon strike six. 
10. They footed it through the streets. 

133. Uses of the Possessive Forms. Each of the 
personal pronouns except "he" and "it" has two 
possessives in each number: namely, "my," "mine"; 
"our," "ours"; "thy," "thine"; "your," "yours"; 
"her," "hers"; "their," "theirs." 

"My," "our," "thy," "your," "her," and "their" 
are always followed by nouns indicating the thing 
possessed: as, "My new sled." 

In ordinary discourse "mine" and "thine," and 
"ours," "yours," "hers," "theirs," are never fol- 
lowed by nouns, but are always used substantively. 

In Biblical and poetical language "mine" and "thine, 
are used before nouns beginning with a vowel sound or "h": 

as, 

"If thine enemy hunger, feed him." 
"Stretch forth thine hand." 

Caution. — No apostrophe is used in writing the possessive 
case of pronouns. 

The possessive forms of pronouns are sometimes classified 
separately as Possessive Pronouns or Possessive Adjectives. 

Exercise 167 

Write ten sentences containing ten different Possess- 
ive forms of the Personal Pronouns. 

134. Use of Gender Forms. Pronouns should 
be of the same gender and number as the nouns for 



OF PRONOUNS 213 

which they stand. Examine, for instance, the 
italicized nouns and pronouns in the following 
selection : 

King Midas at Breakfast. 

King Midas took a nice little trout on his plate, and, by 
way of experiment, touched its tail with his finger. To his 
horror, it was immediately transmuted from an admirably 
fried brook trout into a goldfish, though not one of those 
goldfishes which people often keep in glass globes, as orna- 
ments for the parlor. No; but it was really a metallic fish 
and it looked as if it had been very cunningly made by the 
nicest goldsmith in the world. Its little bones were now 
golden wires; its fins and tail were thin plates of gold; and 
there were the marks of the fork in it, and all the delicate, 
frothy appearance of a nicely fried fish, exactly imitated in 
metal. 

"Well, this is a quandary!" thought he, leaning back in his 
chair, and looking quite enviously at little Mary gold, who was 
now eating her bread and milk with great satisfaction. 

And truly, did you ever hear of such a pitiable case in all 
your lives? Here was literally the richest breakfast that could 
be set before a king, and its very richness made it absolutely 
good for nothing. The poorest laborer, sitting down to his 
crust of bread and cup of water, was far better off than King 
Midas, whose delicate food was really worth its weight in 
gold. — Hawthorne: "A Wonder Book." 

You observe that the Masculine Nouns, like "King 
Midas," are referred to by "he," "his," or "him"; 
Feminine Nouns, like "Marygold," by "she" or 
"her"; Neuter Nouns, like "breakfast" and "food," 
by "it" or "its." 

"Trout," which is either masculine or feminine, 
is here referred to by "it" or "its," because the 



2i 4 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

object named is thought of as a mere thing, without 
any reference to sex. 1 

"Laborer/ ' which is also either masculine or 
feminine, but which denotes a person instead of a 
thing, is referred to as "he," in accordance with an 
established custom of our language when there is no 
desire to emphasize distinctions of sex. If the 
author had thought distinctions of sex were here 
important, he would have said, "The laborer sitting 
down to his or her crust of bread." 

The following uses of gender forms require special 
care. 

i. Words like trout and child, which apply to both male 
and female objects, are referred to by the neuter pronoun 
"it" and "its" when the object named is thought of as a 
mere thing, the sex being unknown or unimportant: as, 
"King Midas took a nice little trout on his plate, and touched 
its tail with his finger"; "The child reached out its little hands. 

2. Words like laborer and person, which apply to both men 
and women, are referred to by the masculine pronouns "he," 
"his," and "him" when there is no desire to emphasize dis- 
tinctions of sex: as, "The laborer is worthy of his hire"; 
"Let every person do as he likes." In such cases "he," "his," 
and "him" stand for mankind in general, and include women 
as well as men. 

3. Sometimes animals are referred to by "he" or "she," 
even when no distinction of sex is intended. In such cases 
the masculine pronoun is used if the speaker fancies the animal 
to possess masculine qualities, such as strength, fierceness; 
the feminine pronoun, if the speaker thinks the animal's 

1 The old term Common Gender is not used by the more recent books on English 
grammar. 



OF PRONOUNS 2is 

qualities are rather feminine, such as timidity, gentleness. 
Examples are: "The tiger steals silently on his prey"; "The 
hare ran for her life." 

Exercise 168 

Fill each blank in the following sentences with an 
appropriate pronoun: 

i. Can a leopard change spots? 

2. Close in — — covert cowered the doe. 

3. The ewe lamb bleated for mother. 

4. The child was unconscious of -^— danger. 

5. The heifer rubbed nose against the bars. 

6. The goose had wandered from '^^- companions. 

7. The hind knew the dogs to be mortal enemies. 

8. The duck was pluming -&•— feathers after swim. 

9. Even a fool, when — — holdeth peace, is counted 

wise. 

10. If any person in the class needs a pencil, I will lend 
— — mine. 

135. Gender in Personification. Examine the 
following sentence : 

Spring hangs her infant blossoms on the trees. 

You observe that the writer refers to spring, which 
has neither life nor sex, by a feminine pronoun. 
The explanation is that he imagined spring as a 
gracious goddess, and spoke accordingly. When we 
thus speak of an object without life as if it were a 
person, we are said to Personify it. 



2i 6 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Gender in personification is determined by the 
same principle as in speaking of animals without 
regard to sex: things remarkable for size, power, 
strength, or other manly qualities, are referred to as 
masculine; things remarkable for beauty, gentleness, 
grace, or other womanly qualities, are referred to as 
feminine. Other examples are: 

(a) The sun now rose upon the right; 
Out of the sea came he. 

(b) Now morn, her rosy steps in the eastern clime 
Advancing, sowed the earth with orient pearl. 

Exercise 169 

Write five sentences in which the following things 
are personified as Masculine: 

time war winter electricity the ocean 

Exercise 170 

Write five sentences in which the following things 
are personified as Feminine: 

a ship the earth night liberty peace 

Exercise 171 

(Review) 

Fill each blank with a pronoun, and give the reason 
for its Gender: 

i. Every author has faults. 

2. A writer should be careful with pronouns. 



OF PRONOUNS 217 

3. Venice sat in state, throned on hundred isles. 

4. A person who is rude in table manners will be 

disliked. 

5. Winter had bound the lakes and rivers fast in 

icy grasp. 

ft 6. The mocking-bird shook from little throat floods 

of delirious music. 

7. The "Olympic" is a huge steamer. is longer than 

the "Great Eastern." 

8. A calf can distinguish mother's lowing from that 

of a hundred other cows. 

9. When a cat comes near a light contracts and 

elongates the pupils of eyes. 

10. The polar bear suffers so much from heat that 

cannot live long in warm climates; therefore is seldom 

seen in menageries. 

136. Use of Number Forms. Difficulties in the 
use of the number forms of personal pronouns arise 
mainly in connection with (1) collective nouns (102) 
and (2) such expressions as "anybody," "everybody," 
"each," "either," "neither," and "nobody." 

A Collective Noun is referred to by a singular 
pronoun when the collection of objects is thought of 
as a single thing; by a plural pronoun when the 
speaker is thinking of the separate objects in the 
collection. For instance, we refer to a committee as 
"it" when we think of it as a whole; when we think of 
the individuals who compose it, we use the pronoun 
"they." Similarly we say, "The jury has given its 
verdict," thinking of it as a single body; "The jury 
have gone to their homes," thinking of the members. 



218 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Anybody >, everybody, each, either, neither, and 
nobody, in spite of the comprehensive meaning of 
some of them, are grammatically singular; and in 
literary English they are referred to by singular 
pronouns: as, "If anybody calls, ask him to wait." 

If the writer considered reference to sex worth while, he 1 
would say, "ask him or her to wait." Ordinarily, however, 
he would use "him" only, taking for granted the application 
to women. 

In colloquial English such expressions as "anybody," 
"everybody," "each," "either," etc., are referred to by the 
genderless plurals "they," "their," "them": as, "If anybody 
calls ask them to wait." This usage is partly an attempt to 
find a pronoun that will stand for both "he" and "she," 
and partly a reflection of the comprehensive meaning of 
"anybody," "everybody," etc. It is shunned by those who 
have an ear for grammatical accuracy. 

Exercise 172 

Fill the blanks with the proper pronouns: 

i. Each must take turn. 

2. Anyone can do this if — — tries. 

3. Has everyone finished work? 

4. Every girl can do this if tries. 

5. Either Mary or Lizzie will lend you pencil. 

6. The choir rendered — — most popular selection. 

7. The audience was very enthusiastic in - — - response. 

8. Each pupil was requested to name favorite color. 



iNote the author's unconscious use of "he" to refer to "writer," which here includes 
in its meaning women as well as men. 



OF PRONOUNS 219 

9. Probably everybody is eloquent at least once in 

life. 

10. Man after man passed, carrying golf clubs 

with - 1 +~~^. 

11. Each of the girls married well, at least in — *^ own 
opinion. 

12. Each of the children married well, at least in 

own opinion. 

13. The team was on — - — own field and felt that 

could not be defeated. 

14. Whoever loves school should do best to keep 

its school tone high. 

15. Many a brave man met death in an obscure 

moment of the war with Spain. 

16. Whoso keepeth mouth and tongue, keepeth 

soul from troubles, 

17. The man and his wife were both there; but neither 
would tell what had seen. 1 

18. The Turkish army left wounded on the field 

because had no way of removing them. 

19. The herd of cattle, pestered by black flies on way 

across the plain, became unmanageable. 

20. Everybody believes the world is watching , but 

is usually mistaken; for the world is generally doing 

what : is doing, namely, thinking of itself. 

137. Compound Personal Pronouns. Examine 
the form and uses of the italicized pronouns in the 
following sentences : 

(a) She herself told me. 

(b) We saw the Queen herself. 



Observe that the meaning of this sentence changes according as we fill the blank with 
'he," "she," or "ihey." 



220 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

(c) He cut himself. 

(d) They think too much of themselves. 

You observe that "herself," "himself," and "them- 
selves" are formed from personal pronouns by 
adding the words "self" or "selves"; and that they 
are used (a, b) for emphasis, or (c, d) after a verb 
or preposition to refer back to the subject of the verb. 

A pronoun formed from a personal pronoun by 
adding "self" or "selves" is called a Compound 
Personal Pronoun. 

A pronoun used for emphasis is called an Inten- 
sive Pronoun. 

A personal pronoun used after a verb or a preposi- 
tion to refer back to the subject of the verb is called 
a Reflexive Pronoun. 

Definition. A compound personal pronoun is a 
pronoun formed from a personal pronoun by adding 
"self" or "selves." 

Definition. An intensive pronoun is a pronoun 
used for emphasis. 

Definition. A reflexive pronoun is a personal 
pronoun used after a verb or a preposition to" refer 
back to the subject of the verb. 

The compound personal pronouns are: 



myself 


herself 


ourself (editorial or majestic) 


itself 


thyself 


ourselves 


yourself 


yourselves 


himself 


themselves 



OF PRONOUNS 221 

The place of a possessive is supplied by "my own/' 
"your own," etc.: as, "He keeps his own horse"; "He has a 
house of his own." 

In the last sentence the phrase "his own" is used as the 
object of the preposition "of," like the possessive "mine" 
in "He is a friend of mine" (133). 

138. Uses of the Compound Personal Pronouns. 

The compound personal pronouns are properly used 
as follows : 

1. ./4 s intensives: as, "I will do it myself "; "The great 
globe itself shall dissolve"; "We saw the king himself" 

2. As reflexives: as, "I cut myself; "We told him to give 
himself plenty of time." 

Besides these well-established uses, the compound personal 
pronouns are sometimes employed as substitutes for simple 
personal pronouns: as, "She invited Ethel and myself to go 
driving." This usage is avoided by the most careful writers. 

Sometimes, especially in poetry, a simple pronoun is used 
reflexively: as, "Now I lay me down to sleep"; "He looked 
about him" 

Exercise 173 

In the following sentences point out the Compound 
Personal Pronouns, and tell whether they are used 
as Intensives or Reflexives: 

1. I myself have seen him. 

2. I think myself happy. 

3. Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself. 

4. Quit yourselves like men. 

5. He will tell you himself. 



222 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

6. Whosoever shall exalt himself shall be abased. 

7. Sinai itself trembled at the presence of God. 

8. You have yourselves heard the report. 

9. Why should you be so cruel to yourselves? 
10. It is usually best to study by ourselves. 

Exercise 174 

Write ten sentences illustrating the use of each of 
the compound personal pronouns as an Intensive. 

Write ten sentences illustrating the use of the same 
pronouns as Reflexives. 

II. Demonstrative Pronouns 

139. Demonstrative Pronouns Defined. Ex- 
amine the italicized pronouns in the following sen- 
tences : 

This is my book; that is yours. 
These are my books; those are yours. 

In these sentences "this" (plural "these") and 
"that" (plural "those") are used to point out certain 
objects. Each is, in a way, equivalent to a gesture. 
A pronoun used to point out is called a Demon- 
strative Pronoun. 

Definition. A demonstrative pronoun is a pro- 
noun used to point out. 

The only demonstrative pronouns are "this" 
(plural "these") and "that" (plural "those"). 



OF PRONOUNS 223 

140. Uses of the Demonstrative Pronouns. 

"This" and "these" are used to indicate persons or 
things near in space, time, or thought; "that" and 
"those" indicate persons or things farther away: 
as, "These are my jewels"; "Our rivers are larger 
than those of Europe." 

When "this" and "that" are used with nouns they are 
called Pronominal Adjectives: as, "This book is mine"; 
"That word is hard to pronounce." 

Exercise 175 

Write five sentences illustrating the use of the 
Demonstrative Pronouns, singular and plural. 

Exercise 176 

Write five sentences illustrating the use of the same 
words as Pronominal Adjectives. 

III. Interrogative Pronouns 

141. Interrogative Pronouns Defined. Examine 
the italicized pronouns in the following sentences: 

Who is he? Whom did you see? Which is he? 

Who is she? What is that? Which is yours? 

Who are they? What are these? Which are yours? 

Whose is this? What do you want? Which do you prefer? 

These pronouns, you observe, are questioning 
words, "who," "whose," and "whom" asking for 
names of persons, "what" asking for names of things, 



224 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

and " which' ' asking for a selection from a group of 
persons or things. Each stands for the noun or 
pronoun that answers the question. 

A pronoun used to ask a question is called an 
Interrogative Pronoun. 

Definition. An interrogative pronoun is a pro- 
noun used to ask a question. 

Tabulating the forms used in the illustrative 
sentences, we find that the only interrogative pro- 
noun which is inflected is "who," and that it is 
declined as follows : 

Singular and Plural 
Nominative: who 

Possessive: whose 

Objective: whom 

The interrogative "whether," meaning "which of the two," 
is no longer used as a pronoun, though it is found in the 
English Bible: as, "Whether is easier?" 

When "which" and "what" are used with nouns they 
are called Pronominal Adjectives: as, "Which book is yours?" 
"What new trick is this?" 

Exercise 177 

Write five sentences illustrating the use of each of 
the Interrogative Pronouns. 

Write five sentences illustrating the use of the same 
words as Pronominal Adjectives. 

142. "Who" or "Whom." In spoken English 
"whom," as an interrogative form, has for centuries 



OF PRONOUNS 225 

been largely given up by most persons as an un- 
necessary and cumbersome inflection ; but in literary 
English, and in the conversation of persons who 
have a strong feeling for grammatical consistency, 
"who" is now used only in nominative relations, and 
"whom" in objective relations: as, "Who is that?" 
"Whom did you see?" "By whom was this written?" 
"Whom are you making that sofa pillow for?" 1 

Exercise 178 

Insert in each of the blanks the proper form of 
pronoun according to literary usage, and give the 
reason for your choice: 



1 
2 

3 

4 

5 
6 

7- 
8. 

9 

10 
11 
12 

13 
14 
IS 



ir. r 



_ 



Who, whom 

- is that? 

- do you mean? 

- have we here? 

- will you invite? 
-called to see you? 

- did you give it to? 

- do you think I am? 

- are you writing to? 
were you talking to? 



^ will you take with you? 

I don't know to ask for. 

— — was that speaking to you? 
I, do not know ^ s ^ he has met. 
^A^^ did you say sat beside you? 
— do you think will be elected? 



Lounsbury: " History of the English Language." 



226 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

n 

1 6. do you expect to call on next? 

17. do you think it was that called? 

18. I do not know will finish the work. 

19. He is going to be married to I don't know . 

20. should I meet yesterday but my old friend Jones! 

143. Direct and Indirect Questions Distinguished. 

Compare the following sentences: 

(1) Maude asked, "Who is he?" 

(2) Maude asked who he was 

(3) Barbara asked, "Who wrote it?" 

(4) Barbara asked who wrote it. 

In the first and third sentences Maude's and Bar- 
bara's questions are quoted in the exact form in 
which they were asked, and are followed by inter- 
rogation points. 

A question asked or quoted in the exact words of 
the speaker is called a Direct Question. 

In the second and fourth sentences the questions 
are not directly asked or quoted, and are not followed 
by interrogation marks. In the second sentence 
even the words and order of the original question 
are changed. 

A question used as a subordinate clause and not 
directly quoted is called an Indirect Question. 

Definition. A direct question is a question asked 
or quoted in the exact words of the speaker. 



OF PRONOUNS 227 

Definition. An indirect question is a question 
used as a subordinate clause and not directly quoted. 

Indirect questions depend on expressions implying inquiry, 
doubt, knowledge, ignorance, or the like: as, "Maude wondered 
who he was"; "Maude discovered who he was"; "Maude did 
not know who he was"; "Maude told us who he was." (The 
direct question in Maude's mind was, "Who is he?") 

Exercise 179 

Copy the Questions in the following sentences and 
tell whether they are Direct or Indirect: 

I. He asked, "What time is it?" 

Model for Written Exercise. "What time is it?" 
Direct. 

2. He asked what it was. 

3. Tell me what you are doing. 

4. He asked, "Whither shall I fly?" 

5. He asked whither he should fly. 

6. They demanded, "Shall this man escape?" 

7. Tell me, "Are you responsible for this?" 

8. He doubted if John had broken the window. 

9. "Did you catch your train?" he asked. 

10. He inquired whether Catiline was at the meeting. 

II. Job asks, "Can you draw out leviathan with a hook?" 

Exercise 180 

Write five Direct Questions, and then change them 
into Indirect Questions. 



228 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Exercise 181 

(Review) 
Parse all the Pronouns in the following sentences: 

i. Who ran to help me when I fell? 
Model. See page 208. 

2. Whom did you see? 

3. Whose dog is that? 

4. What did you ask for? 

5. Who do you think she is? 

6. Whom were you speaking to? 

7. What do you read, my lord? 

8. What care I how fair she be? 

9. What are the wild waves saying? 

10. What is so rare as a day in June? 

11. Which of the samples have you selected? 

IV. Relative Pronouns 

144. Relative Pronouns Defined. Compare the 
following sentences : 

(a) The man thinks the world turns round. The man is 
giddy. 

(b) The man that is giddy thinks the world turns round. 

In (a) we have two separate sentences with "the 
man" as subject. In (b) the two sentences are con- 
nected by the word "that/' which is used instead of 



OF PRONOUNS 22g 

as subject of the second sentence, 
and also connects this sentence with "man" in the 
first sentence, as a modifying clause. In other 
words, it is both pronoun and connective. 

A pronoun which attaches to its antecedent a 
subordinate clause is called a Relative Pronoun. 

Definition. A relative pronoun is a pronoun 
which attaches to its antecedent a subordinate 
clause. 

A relative pronoun is so called because it relates directly 
to an antecedent in the principal clause. 

145. Relative Clauses Defined. A clause intro- 
duced by a relative pronoun is called a Relative 
Clause. 

Compare the relative clauses in the following 
sentences : 

(a) Water that is stagnant is unwholesome. 

(b) The water, which was beautifully clear, gently lapped 
the side of the boat. 

(c) She brought the boy a glass of water, which he drank 
eagerly. 

In each of these sentences the relative clause is 
an adjective clause, modifying the noun " water"; 
but the adjective clauses are of three different 
kinds. 

In the first sentence the relative clause, "that is 
stagnant," limits or restricts the general meaning 
of "water" to the particular sort, that is in mind. 



2 3 o THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

The clause cannot be removed without changing 
the meaning of the sentence. It makes exactly 
known who, which, what, or what kind is meant by 
the antecedent. 

A relative clause which restricts the meaning of 
the antecedent is called a Restrictive Relative 
Clause. 1 

In the second sentence the relative clause, "which 
was beautifully clear/ ' describes the water which 
the speaker has in mind, but does not restrict the 
meaning of the word "water." The clause might 
be removed without injury to the sentence. 

A relative clause which describes the antecedent 
without restricting its meaning is called a Descrip- 
tive Relative Clause. 

In the third sentence the relative clause, " which 
he drank eagerly," neither limits nor describes the 
word "water," but merely carries on the narrative, 
like the second member of a compound sentence. 
"Which" is, in fact, here equivalent to "and it," and 
the relative clause, though subordinate in form, is 
logically coordinate with the first clause. 

A relative clause which neither restricts nor de- 
scribes, but merely carries forward the narrative, is 
called a Forward-moving Relative Clause. 

Definition. A relative clause is a clause intro- 
duced by a relative pronoun. 

Definition, A restrictive relative clause is a 

1 The Joint Committee on Uniform Grammatical Nomenclature suggests the term 
Determinative, which may be readily substituted for Restrictive if the school authorities 
desire. 



OF PRONOUNS 231 

relative clause which restricts the meaning of the 
antecedent. 

Definition. A descriptive relative clause is a 
relative clause which describes the antecedent with- 
out restricting its meaning. 

Definition. A forward-moving relative clause is a 
relative clause which neither restricts nor describes, 
but merely carries on the narrative. 

146. Punctuation of Relative Clauses. Relative 
clauses that are not essential to the meaning should 
be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. 

Essential relative clauses should not be separated 
from the rest of the sentence by commas. 

Exercise 182 

Point out the Relative Clauses in Exercises 43 and 
49, and tell whether they are Restrictive, Descriptive, 
or Forward-moving. 

Exercise 183 

Write a sentence containing a Restrictive relative 
clause; two containing Descriptive relative clauses; 
two containing Forward-moving relative clauses. 

147. Relative Pronouns Distinguished. Examine 
the forms of the relative pronouns in the following 
sentences: 

He prayeth best who loveth best. 
The lady who went out is my aunt. 



232 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

They who will not work must starve. 

The boy whose manners you liked is my brother. 

I know the person of whom you speak. 

The letter which came this morning was from Ruth. 
We played a new game, the name of which I forget. 
I still have the letter which Ruth wrote last week. 

This is the house that Jack built. 
Happy is the man that findeth wisdom. 

What (i.e., That which) is done cannot be undone. 
What (i.e., That which) you say is true. 

From these examples we see that the ordinary 
relative pronouns are "who," "which," "that," and 
"what"; and that only "who" is declined, as follows: 

Singular and Plural. 
Nominative: who 

Possessive: whose 

Objective: whom 

Who, whose, and whom are used chiefly of persons, 
but sometimes of animals: as, "He prayeth best 
who loveth best"; "The robins have succeeded in 
driving off the blue jays who used to build in our 
pines." 

"Whose" is occasionally used of things (149). 

Which, as a relative pronoun, is used of animals or 
things. 

Sometimes which refers to an idea or thought expressed 
by a preceding phrase or clause: as, "This description may 



OF PRONOUNS 233 

seem much exaggerated, which it certainly is not"; " I re- 
lieved his pain, which made him very grateful." This use 
is avoided by careful writers. 

That is used of either persons or things: as, 
"Happy is the man that fmdeth wisdom"; "This is 
the house that Jack built." 

The relative pronoun that is always very closely con- 
nected with its antecedent in both meaning and position, 
never being used when there is any pause between the rela- 
tive clause and the antecedent. Hence it is never used to 
introduce a clause that is merely descriptive or forward- 
moving. We say," Water that [or which] is stagnant is unwhole- 
some"; "The water, which was beautifully clear, lapped the 
sides of the boat." Another peculiarity of that is that it 
never has a preposition before it. We say, "The book of 
which you told me," or, "The book that you told me of" 
putting the preposition last when "that" is substituted for 
"which." 1 



What is peculiar in that it combines the functions 
of both antecedent and relative pronoun, as: 

«t / what It d 

"I mean < , 7 . , . , } I say. 
{ that which J J 



ir To the Teacher. Some grammarians would make "that" obligatory 
whenever the relative clause is restrictive, reserving "who" and "which" 
exclusively for clauses that are merely descriptive or forward-moving. 
According to them, "He prayeth best who loveth best" ought to be 
"He prayeth best that loveth best." But this obligatory use of "that" 
in restrictive clauses has never been a rule of English speech, and is not 
likely to become one, partly because of the impossibility of using "that" 
after a preposition, and partly because of the disagreeable sound of such 
combinations as "That remark that I made yesterday." As a rule 
euphony decides in restrictive clauses between "who" or "which" and 
"that." 



234 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Exercise 184 

Insert appropriate Relative Pronouns in the blanks 
in the following sentences, and give the reason for your 
choice: 

i. Man is the only animal can talk. 

2. Time — — is lost is never found again. 

3. The dog bit the child has been killed. 

4. That is the man spoke to us yesterday. 

5. We have a mastiff, follows us everywhere. 

6. I met the boatman took me across the ferry. 

7. The crow dropped the cheese, — — the fox then ate. 

8. I worked six problems, was the best I could do. 

9. Do you know that man is just entering the car? 

10. Shakespeare was the most expressive man ever 

lived. 

11. At the corner I met a policeman, went with me. 

12. We have done many things — we ought not to have 
done. 

13. He does all -^ — he can does all can be 

expected. 

14. Her hair, was dark brown, was gathered in a 

Grecian knot. 

15. Why should we consult Charles, knows nothing 

of the matter? 

Exercise 185 

Write five sentences illustrating the use of the 
Relative Pronouns "who" "which" "that" and 



148. Case of Relative Pronouns. The case of a 
relative pronoun has nothing to do with its ante- 



OF PRONOUNS 23$ 

cedent, but is determined by its use in the clause in 
which it stands. It may be: 

(1) The subject of a verb: as, "The lady who went out is 
my aunt." 

(2) A possessive modifier: as, "The boy whose manners 
you liked is my brother." 

(3) A direct object: as, "He whom thou lovest is sick." 

(4) Used with a preposition: as, "I know the person of 
whom you speak." 

In Milton's expression, "Satan, than whom none higher 
sat," "than whom," found in all the best authors, but now 
going out of use, is an idiomatic exception to the rules 
governing the choice between "who" and "whom." 

Caution. To determine the case of the relative "what," 
consider only its relation to the words of the noun clause in 
which it stands. In "What followed was only a natural 
consequence," it is the subject of "followed." In "What 
he did was well done," it is the object of "did." In u What I 
asked for was denied me," it is used with the preposition 
"for." In each of these sentences the entire relative clause 
is the subject of the verb "was." 

Exercise 186 

Parse the Relative Pronouns in Exercise 43. 

Models, i. The man that is giddy thinks the world turns 
round. 

That is a relative pronoun with man as its antecedent. 
Therefore, it is third person, singular number, masculine 
gender. It is in the nominative case because it is the subject 
of the verb is. 



236 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

2. This is the house that Jack built. 

That is a relative pronoun with house as its antecedent. 
Therefore it is third person, singular number, neuter gender. 
It is in the objective case because it is the object of the verb 
built. 

3. The picture which you are looking at is by Rembrandt. 

Which is a relative pronoun with picture as its ante- 
cedent. Therefore it is third person, singular number, neuter 
gender. It is in the objective case because it is used with 
the preposition at. 

4. The Chinese admire women whose feet are small. 

Whose is a relative pronoun with women as its ante- 
cedent. Therefore it is third person, plural number, femi- 
nine gender. It is in the possessive case modifying feet. 

Exercise 187 

Parse each Pronoun in Exercise 146. 

Exercise 188 

Insert the proper form of Relative Pronoun in each 
of the following blanks, and give the reason for your 
choice: 

Who, whom 

1. We recommend only those —— we can trust. 

2. I met a man I have no doubt was your uncle. 

3. A lady entered, ^ I afterwards learned was his 
aunt. 

4. He gave the watch to Norman, he thinks will 

take care of it. 

5. They have found the woman they thought had 

been murdered. 



OF PRONOUNS 237 

149. "Whose" or "Of Which." The relative 
pronoun "whose" is often used of things as well as 
persons, corresponding in sense to "of which:" as, 
"The undiscovered country from whose bourne no 
traveler returns." The choice between "whose" and 
"of which" is frequently decided by euphony. 

Exercise 189 

Tell which of the italicized expressions you consider 
preferable, and give your reason: 

Whose, of which 

1. She asked for a book whose name {the name of which) I 
had never heard. 

2. The "White Captive" is a woman bound to a tree, in 
whose bark (the bark of which) arrows are sticking. 

3. Through the heavy door whose bronze network (the 
bronze network of which) closes the place of his rest, let us 
enter the church itself. 

4. I swept the horizon, and saw at one glance the glorious 
elevations, on whose tops (the tops of which) the sun kindled 
all the melodies and harmonies of light. 

5. Men may be ready to fight to the death for a religion 
whose creed (the creed of which) they do not understand, and 
whose precepts (the precepts of which) they habitually disobey. 

150. "As" used as a Relative. After the words 
"such" and "same" the word "as" is used as a rela- 
tive pronoun, e.g., "Tears, such as angels weep burst 
forth." 

After "such" the relative is always "as." 

After "same" it is "as" or "that," with a difference 



238 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

in meaning. The same as usually means "of the 
same kind/' e.g., "My trouble is the same as yours." 
The same that means "one and the same": as, "He 
uses the same books that his brother does." 

This distinction, however, does not hold in elliptical 
sentences, where "the same that" is never found, e.g., 
"He uses the same books as his brother." Occasionally 
"who" or "which" is used instead of "that," e.g., "This is 
the very same rogue who sold us the spectacles" (Gold- 
smith); "With the same minuteness which her predecessor 
had exhibited" (Scott). 

Occasionally "as" is used as a substitute for "which" to 
refer to a preceding idea or thought, e.g., "The ship was 
frozen in, as often happens in polar regions." 

By the omission of the pronoun subject or object, "but" 
sometimes acts as a negative relative equivalent to "that 
not" or "who not": as, 

There is not a wife in the west country 
But has heard of the well of St. Keyne. 

Exercise 190 

Fill the blanks in the following sentences with the 
proper word, and give the reasen for your choice: 

As, that 
i , This is the same book my father used. 

2. I hold the same political opinions — — my father. 

3. I hold the same political opinions my father holds. ' 

4. These are not the same tramps — — were here yesterday. 

5. She is the same merry girl since her marriage — : — she 
was before it. 

151. Relative Pronouns Omitted. The relative 
pronoun when it would be the object of a verb or 



OF PRONOUNS 239 

used with a preposition, is often omitted: as, "The 
book [that or which ] I left here is gone"; "The girl 
[that or whom] you are looking for has not come yet." 

Occasionally a relative pronoun in the nominative case 
is omitted: as, " 'Tis distance [that] lends enchantment 
to the view." 

152. Compound Relative Pronouns. Examine the 
forms and uses of the relative pronouns in the fol- 
lowing sentences: 

Whoever (i.e., Any person who) goes must start at once. 

Whosoever (i.e., Any person who) exalteth himself shall be 
abased. 

Take whichever (i.e., any which) you want. 

Whatever (i.e., Any thing which) he does he does well. 

Sell whatsoever (i.e., anything which) thou hast, and give 
to the poor. 

With regard to form you observe that the italicized 
pronouns are made from "who," "which," and 
"what" by adding "ever" or "soever." 

With regard to use, (1) they perform the functions 
of both relative and antecedent, like "what" (147); 
and (2) they are very indefinite in their meaning, 
being equivalent to "any person who," "any which," 
or "anything which." 

A pronoun formed from "who," "which," or 
"what" by adding the suffix "ever" or "soever" is 
called, with reference to its form, a Compound Rela- 
tive Pronoun. 

Definition. A compound relative pronoun is a 



240 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

pronoun formed by adding the suffix "ever" or 
"soever" to "who," "which," or "what." 

Compound relative pronouns are called, with reference to 
their meaning, Indefinite Relative Pronouns. 

Other compound relatives, seldom used now, are "whoso" 
and "whichsoever." 

"Who," "which," and "what" are sometimes used as 
indefinite relatives: as, "Who steals my purse steals trash"; 
"Take which you will"; "Do what you can." 

153. "Whoever" or "Whomever." The only 
difficulty likely to arise in connection with the use of 
compound relatives lies in the words "whoever" and 
"whomever." 

"Give it to whoever comes to the door" and "Give 
it to whomever you see" are both correct. "Whoever" 
is the subject of "comes"; "whomever" is the 
object of "see." In each sentence the entire rela- 
tive clause is used substantively with the preposi- 
tion " to." 

"Whosoever" and "whomsoever" are used in the same 
way: as, "Unto whomsoever much is given, of him shall be 
much required"; "Whosoever exalteth himself shall be 
abased." 

Exercise 191 

Fill the blanks with the proper forms and give the 
reason for your choice: 

Whoever , whomever 

i. Elect- you wish. 

2. I will entertain you send. 



OF PRONOUNS 241 

3. We will give it to you say. 

4. did it ought to be ashamed of himself. 

5. We will give it to seems to need it most. 

V. Indefinite Pronouns 

154. Indefinite Pronouns Defined. Examine the 
italicized words in the following sentences: 

Some have gone. 
Each took his turn. 

You observe that "some" and "each" are sub- 
stitutes for names, but do not refer definitely to any 
particular individuals. 

A pronoun that does not refer to any particular 
individual is called an Indefinite Pronoun. 

Definition. An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun 
that does not refer to any particular individual. 

The indefinite pronouns are the following: 

1. Distributives, referring to individuals of a class taken 
separately: each, either, neither. 

2. Words of number or quantity: all, any, both, few, many, 
much, several, some, aught, naught, one, none. 

3. Comparatives: such, other, another. 

4. Compound pronouns: each other, one another (called 
reciprocals) ; a certain one, many a one. 

When these words accompany nouns, they must be classed 
as Pronominal Adjectives: as, "Each boy took his turn"; 
11 Some men are born great." 



242 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



Exercise 192 

Write ten sentences illustrating the use of ten 
diferent Indefinite Pronouns, 

Exercise 193 

(Review) 

Parse the Nouns and Pronouns in the following 
sentences: 

i. Love thy neighbor as thyself. 

2. God helps them that help themselves. 

3. Let not him that girdeth on his harness boast himself 
as he that putteth it off. 

4. I find the Englishman to be him of all men who stands 
firmest in his shoes. 

5. Those who make the best use of their time have none 
to spare. 

6. Ye are the salt of the earth: but if the salt have lost 
his savor, wherewith shall it be salted? 

7. I am monarch of all I survey, 

My right there is none to dispute. 

8. There's a divinity that shapes our ends, 

Rough-hew them how we will. 

9. What's in a name? That which we call a rose 
By any other name would smell as sweet. 

10. 'Tis with our judgments as our watches, — none 
Go just alike yet each believes his own. 



OF PRONOUNS 243 

Exercise 194 

(Review) 

Parse the Nouns and Pronouns in the following 
selections: 

i. Go, lovely rose! 

Tell her that wastes her time and me 

That now she knows, 
When I resemble her to thee, 
How sweet and fair she seems to be. 

2. My mind to me a kingdom is; 

Such present joys therein I find, 
That it excels all other bliss, 

That earth affords or grows by kind: 
Though much I want which most would have, 
Yet still my mind forbids to crave. 

3. Some have too much, yet still do crave; 

I little have, and seek no more: 
They are but poor, though much they have, 

And I am rich with litle store: 
They poor, I rich; they beg, I give; 
They lack, I have : they pine, I live. 



CHAPTER V 

OF ADJECTIVES 

An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or 
a pronoun (82). 

155. Classification of Adjectives. Adjectives may 
be arranged in two general classes, as follows: 

i. Descriptive Adjectives, denoting qualities or attributes 
of objects: as, "A black hat." Descriptive adjectives 
answer the question of what kind or in what condition? 

2. Limiting Adjectives, limiting the application of the 
noun or pronoun, without expressing any idea of kind or 
condition: as, "This book"; "TTza/page"; " Yonder moun- 
tain"; "Three kittens"; "Some pleasure." Limiting adjec- 
tives answer the questions what, which, how many, or how 
much? 

Limiting adjectives include: 

(i) Articles: as: "The sky," "A cloud." 

(2) Pronominal Adjectives, often used as pronouns: as, 
"This hat," "Which door," "Each night." Such words are 
pronouns when they stand for nouns; pronominal adjectives 
when they accompany nouns. (See page 195). 

(3) Numeral Adjectives, denoting number: as, "Three 
kittens"; "Second base." The adjectives one, two, three, 
etc., are called Cardinal Numerals in distinction from first, 
second, third, etc., which are called Ordinal Numerals. 

244 



OF ADJECTIVES 245 

Exercise 195 

Classify the Adjectives in Exercise 92. 

156. Singular and Plural Adjectives. The only 
adjectives that have separate forms for singular and 
plural are the pronominal adjectives "this" (plural 
"these") and "that" (plural "those"). 

Mistakes in the use of these forms frequently 
occur in connection with such words as sort and 
kind, which are grammatically singular. The fol- 
lowing sentences are correct: " That kind of house is 
common in New England"; "How do you like this 
sort of horses?" 

Exercise 196 

Insert the proper form in each of the following 
blanks: 

This these; that, those 
i. I do not like '-^— sort of men. 

2. We want no more of — ! — sort of goods. 

3. What do you think of - L — kind of golf clubs? 

4. Young gentlemen should let J — - sort of thing alone. 

5. I always delight in overthrowing sort of schemes. 

157. Comparison of Adjectives. Examine the 
adjectives in the following sentences: 



This is a high mountain. 

That is a higher mountain. 

Yonder is the highest mountain of all. 

"High," "higher," and "highest" are all forms of 



246 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

the same adjective, and all denote the same quality; 
but they denote it in different degrees. 

High merely denotes a quality; higher denotes 
that the object described has more of that quality 
than another object with which it is compared; 
highest denotes that the object described has the 
most of the quality. 

A difference in the form of an adjective to denote 
degree is called Comparison. 

The simple form of an adjective is called the 
Positive Degree. 

The form of an adjective that represents an object 
as having a higher (or lower) degree of a quality 
than another object is called the Comparative 
Degree. 

The form of an adjective that represents an object 
as having the highest (or the lowest) degree of a 
quality is called the Superlative Degree. 

Definition. Comparison is a difference in the form 
of an adjective to denote degree. 

Definition. The positive degree is the simple 
form of an adjective. 

Definition. The comparative degree is the form 
of an adjective that denotes a higher (or a lower) 
degree of equality. 

Definition. The superlative degree is the form of 
an adjective that denotes the highest (or the lowest) 
degree of a quality. 



OF ADJECTIVES 247 

Sometimes the superlative degree is used when no com- 
parison is intended: as, "My dearest mother." In such 
cases the superlative inflection has nearly the same force 
as the adverb "very." 

158. Methods of Comparison. Examine the itali- 
cized forms in the following sentences: 



T i f nobler \ 

I never knew a \ T 7 } man. 

{ more noble J 

tt • ^T. J noblest 1 T 

He is the < A _ _ > man 1 ever saw. 
I most noble J 



From this it appears that there are two ways of 
comparing adjectives: 

1. By Inflection, adding "er" and "est" to the positive to 
form the comparative and the superlative. 

2. By Phrasal Comparison, using the adverbs "more" 
and "most." 

Adjectives of one syllable, and some adjectives of 
two syllables, are usually compared by the addition 
of "er" and "est": as, weak, weaker, weakest; 
narrow, narrower, narrowed. 

Some adjectives of two syllables, and all longer 
adjectives, are usually compared by using "more" 
and "most": as, famous, more famous, most famous; 
beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful. 

In general the method of comparison is a matter 
of taste, determined for the most part by the ear. 



248 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



Exercise 197 

Compare the following adjectives: 



careful useful difficult 

yellow lively beautiful 

unkind fearless ungrateful 

honest important distinguished 



159. Irregular Comparison. The comparison of 
the following adjectives is irregular: 



proud 


safe 


strong 


able 


bright 


spry 


warm 


happy 



Positive. Compar. Superl. 


Positive 


. Compar. 


Superl. 


bad | 


late 


later 


latest 


evil \ worse worst 


\latter 


last 


iu J 


little 


less 


least 


far farther farthest 

, r /foremost 
fore former < 


manyl 
much/ 


more 


m6st 






("nearest 
\next 


[forth, adv.] further furthest 


near 


nearer 


g°° d } better best 
well J 


old 


folder 
\ elder 


oldest 
eldest 



160. Adjectives Incapable of Comparison. Some 
adjectives denote qualities that do not vary in 
degree: as, "straight," "perfect," "circular," "daily," 
"square," "round," "untiring." Strictly speaking, 
such adjectives cannot be compared; yet custom 
sanctions such expressions as "straighter," "round- 
est," "more perfect," because they are convenient. 

161. Use of the Comparative and Superlative. 

The comparative degree properly implies a com- 
parison of two things or sets of things; the super- 



OF ADJECTIVES 249 

lative, of more than two: as, "He is older than I"; 
"She is the youngest of the family." 

In modern English this distinction is not always followed, 
good writers frequently using the superlative when only two 
things are compared: as, "Who was the first, Ruth or 
Maude?" "He is the best of the two." In general, when two 
things or sets of things are compared, the comparative 
degree is preferable: as, "Which is the taller, Ruth or 
Maude?" 

Caution. It is incorrect to say, "Iron is more useful 
than any metal," because "iron" is included in the term 
"any metal," and of course iron cannot be more useful 
than itself. For a similar reason it is incorrect to say, 
"Iron is the most useful of any metal." It is correct to 
say, "Iron" is more useful than any other metal"; "Iron is 
the most useful of all metals." 

Exercise 198 

Construct sentences comparing the following things, 
using first a Comparative, then a Superlative form: 

i. The large population of China; the smaller populations 
of other countries. 

Model. China has a larger population than any other 
country. China has the largest population of all the coun- 
tries in the world. 

2. Smith, the best athlete; the other boys in the school. 

3. Mary's recitations; the recitations of her classmates 
which are not so good. 

4. The population of London; the population of the other 
cities in the world. 



25o THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

5. The Falls of Niagara; other falls. 

6. The Panama Canal; other engineering works. 

162. The Articles. 1 The adjectives "the" and 
"a" or "an," are called Articles. 

"The" is a weakened form of the demonstrative pronoun 
"that." 

"An" (shortened to "a" before consonant sounds) is a 
weakened form of the numeral adjective "one," which was 
formerly written "an." In general it always implies oneness, 
but usually in a vague, indefinite sense that does not belong 
to the numeral adjective "one." 

163. "A" or "An." The choice between "a" or 
"an," which are different forms of the same word, is 
determined by sound. Before a vowel sound "an" 
is used; before a consonant sound "a" is used. 

Caution. Sound and spelling do not always coincide. 
For example, "one" and "unit" begin with vowels, but the 
initial sounds are those of the consonants "w" and "y" in 
"won" and "you"; therefore we say "a unit," "such a one." 
"Honor" begins with a consonant, but the initial sound is 
that of the vowel "o" in "onset"; therefore we say "an 
honor." 

Usage is divided as to "a" or "an" before words beginning 
with "h" and accented on the second syllable. We say u an 
historical sketch" or "a historical sketch," according to 
taste. 



1 To the Teacher. A study of the articles is important for all students 
of foreign languages. 



OF ADJECTIVES 251 

Exercise 199 

Put the proper form of the article "A" or "An" 
before each of the following expressions: 

A, an 
(1) article, (2) onion, (3) union, (4) uniform, (5) uninformed 
reader, (6) universal belief, (7) useful invention, (8) umpire, 
(9) unfortunate mistake, (10) eulogy, (11) European, (12) 
hour, (13) honest man, (14) house, (15) humble dwelling, 
(16) habitual drunkard, (17) hotel, (18) heroic people, 
(19) hereditary disposition, (20) hero of the school. 

164. Articles Definite and Indefinite. Compare 
the italicized expressions in the following sentences: 

Man is mortal. 

The child is dying. 

A soldier stood on guard. 

"Man," unlimited by an article, applies to all 
mankind. 

"The child' ' applies to an individual already before 
the mind. 

"A soldier" applies to a representative of his 
class. 

"The" points definitely to a particular object 
and is called the Definite Article. 

"A" (or "an") selects one, no matter which, and 
is called the Indefinite Article. 

165. Uses of the Articles. No one principle 
covers all the uses of the articles. These must be 



252 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

learned chiefly through observation and imitation. 
It may be helpful, however, to enumerate some of 
their special functions. 

The Definite Article is used : 

(i) To designate objects as already before the mind: as, 
"One night a wolf fell in with a dog. The wolf was all skin 
and bones, while the dog was as fat as he could be." 

(2) To designate objects as near by or prominent in the 
mind: as, "I sprang to the window"; "The birds are singing"; 
"We saw the queen" ; "The Scriptures tell the story of the 
Flood." 

This use of the article tends to change a common into a 
proper noun, as indicated frequently by the use of capitals. 

(3) To give to a common noun a representative or collective 
force: as, "The reindeer is a native of Norway." 

This use of the article — called the Generic (Latin gener, 
'''& class") — is borrowed from the French. The English 
article, as remarked above, singles out; the generic article 
collects. 

The Indefinite Article is used: 

(1) In its original numerical sense of "one": as, "Not a 
word was said"; "Two at a time." 

When nouns have the same form for both singular and 
plural, this use of the article distinguishes the numbers: as, 
"He has a sheep" ; "He has sheep." 

(2) In the vague sense of "a certain": as, "One night a 
wolf fell in with a dog." (The word "one" in this sentence 
hardly differs in function from the articles.) 

(3) In the sense of "any "to single out an individual as the 
representative of a class: as, "A ball is round." 



OF ADJECTIVES 253 

(4) To make a common noun of a proper noun: as, "A 
Daniel come to judgment." 

Note. In "many a child/' "such a person," and similar 
expressions, the article follows the adjective, instead of 
preceding it. 

Caution. It is incorrect to say, "What kind of a 
flower?" .because "a" means "one." 

Exercise 200 

Tell the difference in meaning between: 

i. Give me a (one) pen. 

2. I have caught (a) cold. 

3. A black and (a) white cat. 

4. Bring me the (that) candle. 

5. Grass (The grass) is green. 

6. I sprang to a (the) window. 

7. Birds (The birds) are singing. 

8. Men (The men) admired him 

9. He has (a) trout in his basket. 

10. Bring me a (the) lighted candle. 

11. Man (The man) is a strange being. 

12. Wanted a cook and (a) housemaid. 

13. Men (The men) ran to give the alarm. 

14. There were few (a few) friends with him, 

15. He behaved with little (a little) reverence. 

16. The (That) road crosses the (a) mountain. 

17. A man (The man) on the shore rescued her. 

18. Mr. Smith (A Mr. Smith) called to see you. 

19. If you wish to have virtue (a virtue), you must prac- 
tice it. 

20. Shall I tell you a (the) story of a (the) wolf and a 
(the) dog? 



254 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Exercise 201 

Insert the proper article in each blank, if an article 
is needed; if no article is needed, leave the place blank: 

A, an, the 
i. lion is king of beasts. 

2. What kind of bird is that? 

3. My favorite flower is violet. 

4. What sort of pen do you like? 

5. Colonel Waring died of yellow fever. 

6. He well deserves the name of scholar. 

7. Omit third and fourth page (pages). 

8. There are two articles, the definite and indefinite. 

9. Nouns have two numbers, singular and 

plural. 

10. Two figures came slowly down the road; one 

was a man, other a boy. 

Exercise 202 

1. Write five sentences of your own illustrating the 
three common uses of the Definite Article. 

2. Write five sentences of your own illustrating the 
four common uses of the Indefinite Article. 

166. Caution. Not every "the" is an article, nor 
every "a." 

In "The more they get the more they want," and 
similar constructions, "the" is an adverb, a survival 
of an old adverbial case-form of the pronoun "that." 

In "Who goeth a borrowing, goeth a sorrowing," 
and similar constructions, "a" is a survival of an old 
preposition. 



OF ADJECTIVES 255 

167. Position of Adjectives. Adjectives are used 
with nouns or pronouns in three different ways, 
indicated by different positions, as follows: 

1. Adherent: as, "The happy child danced with joy." 
This relation is a close connection, in direct attachment to 
the substantive. It has sometimes been called the Attribu- 
tive relation. 

2. Appositive: as, "The child, happy and joyous, danced 
along the path." This relation is the same as that of the 
appositive noun (54). 

3. Predicate: as, "The child is happy". Here the 
connection with the substantive is made through the 
medium of the verb, and the adjective is a subjective 
complement or predicate adjective (38) 

168. Substitutes for Adjectives. The function of 
an adjective may be performed by: 

(1) A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case: as, "That 
is John's book"; "This is my book." (116, 133.) 

(2) A prepositional phrase: as, "The path by the lake is 
shady." 

(3) An infinitive phrase: as, "Water to drink was scarce." 

(4) A participial phrase: as, "The boy reciting his lesson 
is my brother." 

(5) A clause: as, "The girl whom you saw is my sister." 
(49, 145.) 

169. How to Parse an Adjective. To parse an 
adjective one must tell: 

(1) Its class. 

(2) Its comparison. 

(3) Its use. 



256 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Model. "The good news arrived yesterday.'' 
"Good" is a descriptive adjective. It is in the positive 
degree, and is compared, "good," "better," "best." It 
modifies the noun "news" in the adherent position. 

Exercise 203 

Parse the Adjectives in Exercise 17. 

Exercise 204 

(Review) 
Parse the Adjectives in Exercise 56. 

Exercise 205 

(Review) 

Parse the Nouns, Pronouns, and Adjectives in 
Exercise 91. 



CHAPTER VI 

OF ADVERBS 

An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, 
an adjective, or another adverb (85). 



Most adverbs are used only with verbs; hence the name 
"adverb." The adverbs that are used with adjectives or 
other adverbs are few in number. 



170. Adverbs Classified According to Meaning. 

Classified according to meaning, adverbs are of six 
kinds: 

(i) Adverbs of time: as, "Let us go now." 

(2) Adverbs of place: as, "Come here." 

(3) Adverbs of manner: as, "He fought bravely." 

(4) Adverbs of degree: as, "He talks little" 

(5) Adverbs of cause: as, "Why did you come?" 

(6) Adverbs of assertion: as, "Perhaps I can help you"; 
"No, you can not help me." 

"No" and "yes," which are used by themselves as the 
equivalents of sentences, are classed as adverbs for historical 
reasons. 

257 



258 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Exercise 206 

Classify the Adverbs in Exercise 96 according to 
meaning. 



Model for Written Exercise: 



Time 
now 



Place 



Manner 
bravely 



Degree 



Cause 
why 



Assertion 
not 



171. Adverbs Classified According to Use. 
Classified according to use, adverbs are of three 
kinds : 

1 . Limiting Adverbs, used to modify the meaning of a verb, 
an adjective, or an adverb: as, "He walked rapidly"; "She 
is very pretty, and talks exceedingly well" 

2. Interrogative Adverbs, used to ask questions: as, "When 
did you arrive?'' Indirect: "He asked when we arrived." 

3. Conjunctive Adverbs, used to introduce clauses: as, 
"We went on to Paris, where we stayed a week." 

Conjunctive adverbs shade off into conjunctions, from 
which they frequently cannot be distinguished. 

172. The Form of Adverbs. With regard to 
form, adverbs are of three kinds: 

1. Simple Adverbs, which have no adverbial termination: 
as, "Come here" ; "That is too bad." This class includes 
nouns and adjectives that are made into adverbs by being 
set in an adverbial position: as, "He was stone dead"; 
"Pull hard." 

2. Derivative Adverbs, which have adverbial terminations: 
as, "You acted wisely." 



OF ADVERBS 



259 



3. Compound Adverbs, which are idiomatic adverbial 
phrases that cannot easily be separated into parts. The fol- 
lowing are common examples: 



arm-in-arm 


at once 


in vain 


as yet 


at worst 


now-a-days 


at all 


by all means 


of course 


at best 


by far 


of late 


at large 


face to face 


of old 


at last 


for good 


on high 


at least 


ere long 


one by one 


at length 


in general 


two by two 


at most 


in short 





The most common form of adverb in literary 
English is the form in "-ly." It is made freely from 
all kinds of adjectives except those that already 
end in "-ly."' 

Adjectives that already end in "-ly," as "lively" 
and "friendly," usually have no corresponding 
adverb. We use instead some adverbial phrase: as, 
"in a friendly way"; "in a lively manner." 



Adjectives used as adverbs are frequent in the literature 
of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: as, "Then was 
the king exceeding glad" (Dan. vi, 23); "The sea went 
dreadful high" (Robinson Crusoe) . They also occur somewhat 
freely in modern poetry. In modern literary prose they are 
seldom used, good writers preferring the adverbial forms in 
"ly," except in a few cases which may be learned by obser- 
vation: as, "Pitch dark"; "He ran fast" ; "Come quick" ; 
"Stand right"; "I bought it cheap." 



2 6o THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Exercise 207 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct according 
to the best usage, and give the reason: 

i. She gets her lessons easy {easily) enough. 

2. Are you coming with us? Sure {surely). 

3. Speak slow {slowly) and distinct {distinctly). 

4. He could scarce {scarcely) control his feelings. 

5. A person should dress suitable {suitably) to his station. 

173. Comparison of Adverbs. Many adverbs 
denote ideas that vary in degree, and therefore they 
admit of comparison, like adjectives (157). 

Adverbs of one syllable (and a few others) usually 
form their comparative and superlative degrees by 
adding "-er" and "-est": as, "Pull harder:' 

Adverbs in "-ly" usually form the comparative 
and superlative by prefixing "more" and "most": 
as, "He felt it most keenly" 

In other respects the comparison of adverbs re- 
sembles the comparison of adjectives. 

Exercise 208 

Tell which of the italicized expressions is preferable, 
and give the reason: 

1. I can study easiest {most easily) in the morning. 

2. He writes plainer {more plainly) than he used to. 

3. You ought to value your privileges higher {more highly). 

4. Which can run the faster {fastest), Conner or Board- 
man? 

5. Which is the farther {farthest) north, New York, Chicago, 
or San Francisco? 



OF ADVERBS 261 

174. Adjective or Adverb. It is sometimes a 
question whether to use an adjective or an adverb 
after such verbs as "grow," "look," "sound," 
"smell," "taste." 

If the added word applies to the subject of the 
verb, it should be an adjective; if to the verb, it 
should be an adverb. We say "We feel warm," 
when we mean that we are warm; we say "We feel 
warmly on this subject," when we mean that our 
feelings are stirred up. 

As a rule, it is proper to use an adjective whenever 
the verb resembles in meaning some form of the verb 
"be" or "seem"; otherwise we use an adverb. 

Sometimes we may use either adjective or adverb, 
with no difference in meaning: as, "We arrived 
safe {safely)" 

"I feel well" and "You look well" are the correct expres- 
sions when referring to health, and "well" is here a predicate 
adjective. 

"Good" is not used as an adverb by the best writers and 
speakers. 

Exercise 209 

Distinguish between: 

1. That looks good {well). 

2. We found the way easy {easily). 

3. The potatoes are boiling soft {softly). 

4. The new bell-boy appeared prompt {promptly). 

5. I found Barbara happy {happily) at home. 



262 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Exercise 210 

Tell which of the italicized words is correct, and 
give the reason: 

i. She plays very good {well), 

2. The door shut easy {easily). 

3. Deal gentle {gently) with them. 

4. How sweet {sweetly) those blossoms smell! 

5. He stood firm {firmly) in spite of opposition. 

6. He felt awkward {awkwardly) in her presence. 

7. She looks beautiful {beautifully) in a pink gown. 

8. He did not act awkward {awkwardly) in her presence. 

9. The wind blows cold {coldly) through the gaps in these 
mountains. 

10. Will you come? Sure {surely). 

175. Position of Adverbs. Adverbs, like other 
modifiers, should be placed next to the word or 
words that they modify. 

The word only requires special care, as will appear from 
observing how changes in its position affect the meaning of 
the following sentences : 

(a) Only he lost his hat. {b) He only lost his hat. {c) He 
lost only his hat. {d) He lost his only hat. (e) He lost his 
hat only. 

As a general rule, "only" should be placed immediately 
before what it is intended to modify. Occasionally, when 
no ambiguity would arise (as at the end of sentences), it may 
be placed after the word it modifies, with an emphatic, almost 
a disparaging effect: as, "He lost his hat only. ,} 



OF ADVERBS 263 

176. ' 'There* ' Expletive. Compare the following 
sentences : 

(a) A gust of wind came. 

(b) There came a gust of wind. 

These sentences are alike in meaning, but differ 
in form. The first sentence begins with the subject, 
"A gust of wind/' which is followed by the predicate, 
"came." The second sentence begins with "There," 
followed by the predicate, which in turn is followed 
by the subject. In such sentences the introductory 
word "there" adds nothing to the meaning, and is 
commonly called an Expletive (131). 

Other examples are : " There was water in the well" ; 
"There are two sides to every question." 

The second sentence tells us not so much that a gust of 
wind came, as that what came was a gust of wind. 

The expletive "there" is regularly used before the various 
forms of "be" when they denote existence: as, "There is a 
God"; "There were giants in those days." 

Exercise 211 

Point out the Subject, the Predicate, and the Exple- 
tive in each of the following sentences: 

1. There was a jolly miller. 

Model for Oral Exercise. The subject is "a jolly mil- 
ler"; the predicate is "was." "There" is an expletive. 



264 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Model for Written Exercise: 

E. S. P. 

There miller « . r wa,s 

a 
jolly 



2. There never was a good war. 

3. There is a time for all things. 

4. There was silence deep as^deaifc**.^,, > 

5. There came a voice from heaven. 

6. There is no royal road to learning. 

7. There is a reaper whose name is Death. 

8. There was a sound of revelry by nigftt\ V 

9. There's a divinity that shapes our ends. 

10. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods. 

11. There came to the beach a poor exile of Erin. 

Exercise 212 

Write five sentences that begin with "there" Exple- 
tive, and underline the predicate of each. 

177. Double Negatives. In modern literary Eng- 
lish two negatives destroy each other, and are 
equivalent to an affirmative : as, "I can't do nothing" 
= "I can (and must) do some thing.' ' 

Formerly two or more negative adverbs were frequently 
used to strengthen one another. 

178. Substitutes for Adverbs. The adverbial 
function may be performed by: 

(1) A noun: as. "The book cost a dollar" ; "We studied 

an hour" (115: 4.) 



OF ADVERBS 265 

(2) An adverbial phrase: as, "He came on foot" (47.) 

(3) An adverbial clause: as, "They started when the sun 
rose." (49.) 

179. How to Parse Adverbs. To parse an adverb 
we must give its : 

(1) Class according to (a) use, and (b) meaning. 

(2) Comparison. 

(3) Construction. 

Model. "Here stands the man." 

"Here" is a limiting adverb of time. It cannot be com- 
pared. It modifies the verb "stands." 

Exercise 213 

Parse the Adverbs in Exercise ioo. 

Exercise 214 

(Review) 

Parse the Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives and Adverbs 
in Exercise 101. 



CHAPTER VII 

OF VERBS 

A Verb is a word used to assert (27). 

The verb is the instrument of assertion. Usually it de- 
notes action; less often, being or state (28); sometimes it 
has assertive power only (29). Sometimes it is a single 
word, sometimes a phrase (30). 

I. CLASSIFICATION 

180. Transitive Verbs. Examine the verb in the 
following sentence: 

John frightened Helen. 

In this sentence, "frightened" denotes an action 
which involves two persons: John, the doer of the 
action; and Helen, who receives it. The action of 
frightening passes over from John, the doer, to Helen, 
the receiver. 

A verb that denotes an action that passes over 
from a doer to a receiver is called a Transitive 
Verb (Latin transive, ' 'to pass over" 1 ) . (See page 275.) 

x To the Teacher. A transitive verb is often denned as "a verb that 
requires an object to complete its meaning." This is not true of a 
transitive verb in the passive voice. Furthermore it does not help 
pupils to see the difference between direct objects and predicate nouns 
or adjectives in such sentences as "Arnold turned his back" and 
"Arnold turned traitor." 

266 



OF VERBS 267 

Definition. A Transitive Verb is a verb that 
denotes an action that passes over from the doer to a 
receiver. 

Other examples are: 

I hear a voice. 

Galileo invented the pendulum. 

181. Intransitive Verbs. Examine the verbs in 
the following sentences: 

John laughed. 
John was happy. 
John became a doctor. 

These verbs do not denote an action that passes 
over from a doer to a receiver. Such verbs are called 
Intransitive Verbs. 

Definition. Intransitive Verbs are verbs that do 
not denote an action that passes over from a doer 
to a receiver. 

Other examples are: 

The rainbow comes and goes. 
Enough is as good as a feast. 

Intransitive verbs are of two kinds : (1) Verbs of Complete 
Predication, which can be used by themselves as complete 
predicates: as, "The rainbow comes and goes" (34); (2) 
Verbs of Incomplete Predication or Linking Verbs, which 
cannot by themselves be used as complete predicates, but 
require predicate nouns or adjectives: as, "Enough is as 
good as a feast" (35). 



268 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

182. Some Verbs Either Transitive or Intran- 
sitive. The distinction between transitive and 
intransitive verbs is based solely on meaning and use, 
and if the meaning and use of a verb change, its 
classification changes too. Hence, it happens that 
some verbs are at one time transitive, at another 
intransitive: as, 

Transitive: She wore a wreath of roses 

The night that first we met. 
Intransitive: Never morning wore 

To evening, but some heart did break. 

A peculiar instance of change from one class to another 
occurs when a verb usually intransitive becomes transitive 
through the addition of a preposition used as an inseparable 
adjunct: as, "They laughed 1 ' ; "They laughed at me." That 
the words "laughed at" in the last sentence are to be taken 
together as a transitive verb is shown by the fact that if the 
sentence is thrown into the passive form (185), "at" remains 
attached to the verb: as, "I was laughed at by them." 

Exercise 215 

Make a list of the Verbs in the following sentences 
and tell whether they are Transitive or Intransitive: 

1. I hear a voice. 

2. The shrill bell rings. 

3. The horse and rider reel. 

4. The splendor falls on castle walls. 

5. My good blade carves the casques of men. 

6. A troop of strange children ran at his heels. 

7. He came to a rocky gorge in the mountain. 



OF VERBS 269 

8. The little boy dipped his hands in the pool. 

9. God scatters love on every side. 

10. I leaped on board the train. 

11. With his knife the tree he girdled. 

12. I shot an arrow into the air. 

13. The lark at heaven's gate sings. 

14. Long at the window he stood. 

15. Vast meadows stretched to the eastward. 

16. Trifles make perfection. 

17. Galileo invented the pendulum. 

18. Month after month passed away. 

19. Four times the sun had risen and set. 

20. He went to his room to lie down. 

Exercise 216 

Write ten sentences, using each of the following 
Verbs first as Transitive, then as Intransitive: 

break fly move return speak 

183. Transitive and Intransitive Distinguished 
by Form. A few verbs in common use, distin- 
guished as transitive or intransitive by their spelling, 
are often confounded in some of their forms. They 
are: 



Intransitive 
Fall: as, "Divided we fall: " 

Past, fell: as, "Great 

Caesar fell." 
Past Participle, fallen: as, 

"She has fallen asleep." 



• Transitive 

Fell ("cause to fall"): as, 
" Woodmen fell trees." 
Past, felled: as, "They 

felled all the good trees." 
Past Participle, felled: as, 

"This tree was felled 

yesterday." 



270 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



Intransitive 
Lie: as, "Lie still." 

Past, lay: as, " Behold, 

Sisera lay dead." 
Past Participle, lain: as 

"Had he lain there 

long?" 

Rise: as, "Rise with the lark." 

Past, rose: as, "Then up he 

rose." 
Past Participle, risen: as, 

"The lark has risen." 



Sit: as, "Let us sit down." 

Past, sat: as, "We sat on 

the piazza." 
Past Participle, sat: as, 

"He has sat there all 
day." 



Transitive 

Lay ("cause to lie"): as, 
"Lay the book down." 
Past, laid: as, "He laid 

the book down." 
Past Participle, laid: as, 
"He has laid the book 
down." 

Raise ("cause to rise"): as, 
"Raise your head." 
Past, raised: as, "He 

raised his head." 
Past Participle, raised: as, 
"He has raised his 
head." 

Set. ("cause to sit"): as, "Set 

the lamp on the table." 
Past, set: as, "She set the 

lamp on the table." 
Past Participle, set: as, 

"She has set the lamp 

on the table." 



Exercise 217 

Insert the proper word in each blank in the following 
sentences: 

Lie, lay, lying, laying, lain, laid. 
i. Let him there. 

2. I found it on the floor. 

3. Ireland / - ^ ' s west of England. 

4. Slowly and sadly we him down. 

5. You had better down for a while. 



OF VERBS 271 

6. During the storm the ship at anchor. 

7. He told me to down, and I — - — down. 

8. The carpet does not smooth on the floor. 

9. I was so weary that I down in my clothes. 

10. He told me to it down, and I it down. 

Exercise 218 

Insert the proper word in each blank in the following 
sentences: 

Rise, rose, risen, raise, raised. 

1. up, you lazy fellow. 

2. The price of corn has . 

3. Let them up and help you. 

4. She cannot get her bread to . 



5. Cain — up against Abel, his brother. 

6. Many are they that up against me. 

7. Abraham up early in the morning. 

8. He — — himself up before I could reach him. 

9. " up," said I, "and get you over the brook." 

10. He up and began to speak. 

Exercise 219 

Insert the proper word in each blank in the following 
sentences: 

Sit, sat, set. 

1. Where do .you ? 

2. Have you there long? 

3. down and talk a while. 

4. Let us a good example. 

5. She had to up all night. 

6. The calamity heavy on us. 



272 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

7. Let us here and listen to the music. 

8. Yesterday we round the fire telling stories. 

9. He the basket on a rock, while he went to the 

spring. 

10. thine house in order. 

184. Auxiliary Verbs. Compare the uses of the 
verb "have" in the following sentences: 

I have a ball. 

I have lost my ball. 

In the first sentence "have" expresses a distinct 
idea of its own, namely, the idea of possession. 

In the second sentence it has laid aside this mean- 
ing and merely helps to express the meaning of an- 
other verb, "lost." 

A verb that merely helps to express the meaning 
of another verb is called an Auxiliary Verb. 

Definition. An auxiliary verb is a verb that 
merely helps to express the meaning of another verb. 

A verb that expresses a distinct idea or notion of its own 
is sometimes called a Notional Verb. 

The verb that follows an auxiliary is always an infinitive 
(94) or a participle (93), and is sometimes called the Principal 
Verb in the verb-phrase. 

Can, let, may, must, ought, should, and would. These 
verbs cannot stand alone as predicates, but are always 
followed by the infinitive of another verb; therefore most 
grammarians call them auxiliaries. But they also express 



OF VERBS 273 

distinct ideas of their own, e.g. ability, volition, permission, 
necessity, obligation, etc. 

Exercise 220 

Tell whether the italicized verbs are Auxiliary Verbs 
or not. If not auxiliary, tell the idea or notion expressed: 

1. She does her work well. 

2. She does not see me. 

3. Have you a sled? 

4. Have you read "Ben-Hur"? 

5. I aw reading it now. 

6. It is an interesting story. 

7. You may come to see me whenever you can find time. 

8. Can you speak French? 

9. I must go now. 

10. Everyone ought to tell the truth always. 

II. VOICE 

185. Voice Defined. Compare the following sen- 
tences : 

An Indian shot a deer. 

A deer was shot by an Indian. 

The verbs "shot" and "was shot" are both tran- 
sitive, because they represent an action passing over 
from a doer to a receiver (180). 

"Shot" represents the subject of the sentence as 
doing the action, while the receiver is named by the 
direct object. 

"Was shot" represents the subject of the sentence 



274 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

as receiving the action, while the doer is expressed 
by the phrase, "by an Indian." 

A difference in the form of a verb to show whether 
the subject acts or is acted upon is called Voice. 

When a transitive verb represents the subject as 
doing the action it is in the Active Voice. 

When a transitive verb represents the subject as 
receiving the action it is in the Passive Voice. 

Definition. Voice is a difference in the form of a 
verb to show whether the subject acts or is acted 
upon. 

Definition. The active voice is the form of a 
transitive verb which represents the subject as doing 
the action. 

Definition. The passive voice is the form of a 
transitive verb which represents the subject as 
receiving the action. 

Sometimes the subject of a passive verb denotes 
the object produced by the action: as, "The nest was 
built by a wren." 

When a transitive verb is in the passive voice, 
the doer of the action is often omitted : as, 

A deer was shot [by an Indian]. 
Helen was frightened [by John]. 
The ship was wrecked [by a storm]. 

Intransitive verbs can have no passive voice. 



OF VERBS 275 

The difference between the active and the passive voices 
of transitive verbs may be graphically represented as follows : 

Active Voice Passive Voice 



Subject Verb Object Subject Verb Agent 

An Indian shot a deer. A deer was shot by an 

Indian. 




* \ 



Passive Voice, Agent omitted 

Subject Verb 

A deer was shot. 




\ 



Verbs like "have," "own," "possess," "inherit," etc., 
though they do not express action or feeling, are nevertheless 
called transitive, because they involve two objects, the 
possessor and the thing possessed. 

Exercise 221 

Make a list of the verbs in the following sentences 
and tell whether they are in the Active or the Passive 
Voice: 

i. Grocers sell butter. 



276 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

v 

2. Butter is sold by grocers. 

3. The manager gave me a ticket. 

4. The bird forsook her nest. 

5. Joan of Arc was burned at the stake. 

6. The solos will be sung by Madame Homer. 

7. The voice of the turtle dove is heard in the land. 

8. Mother is giving a luncheon to-day. 

9. The school bell had been rung at the usual time. 
10. The swallows were seeking their nests. 

Exercise 222 

Rewrite the sentences in Exercise 221, changing the 
Active into the Passive Voice and the Passive into the 
Active Voice. 

Exercise 223 

Make a list of the verbs in the following selection 
and tell whether they are in the Active or the Passive 
Voice: 

Apples in Ancient Times 

It appears that apples made a part of the food of that 
unknown primitive people whose traces have lately been 
found at the bottom of the Swiss lakes, so old that they had 
no metallic implements. An entire black and shriveled crab 
apple has been recovered from their stores. 

The apple tree has been celebrated by the Hebrews, 
Greeks, Romans, and Scandinavians. Some have thought 
that the first human pair were tempted by its fruit. God- 
desses contended for it, dragons guarded it, and heroes 
searched for it. 



OF VERBS 277 

Exercise 224 

Write two sentences in which the verbs are in the 
Active Voice; three in which they are in the Passive 
Voice. 

186. Form of the Passive Voice. Compare the 
following sentences: 

{Active) Grocers sell butter. 
{Passive) Butter is sold by grocers. 

{Active) Congress made Dewey an admiral. 
{Passive) Dewey was made an admiral by Congress. 

{Active) The manager will give you a ticket. 
{Passive) A ticket will be given you by the manager; or 
(occasionally), You will be given a ticket by the manager. 

You observe that the passive voice of a verb is 
formed by using the verb be as an auxiliary ("is," 
"was," "will be"). 

You observe, also, that when a sentence is changed 
from the active to the passive form, the direct object 
of the active verb ("butter," "Dewey," "ticket") be- 
comes the subject of the passive verb. 

The subject of the active verb ("Grocers," "Con- 
gress," "manager") becomes an agent after the pass- 
ive verb — a relation expressed by the preposition 
"by." 

An objective complement ("admiral") becomes a 
predicate noun (or adjective). 



278 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

An indirect object usually remains an indirect object- 
Sometimes the indirect object is made the subject of the 
passive verb, the direct object then becoming a "retained 
object" (188). 

Exercise 225 

Rewrite the following sentences changing each verb 
into the Passive Voice: 

i. The Puritans founded Harvard College. 

2. Manners reveal character. 

3. A sense of duty pursues us ever. 

4. Gentle deeds make known a gentle mind. 

5. Public amusements keep people from vice. 

6. A crumb of bread thrown in jest made Prescott, the 
historian, blind for life. 

7. They found her lying in the snow frozen to death. 

8. All believed him to be an honest man. 

9. The sly agent imposed upon us both. 

10. The wounded man's wife took care of him. 

Exercise 226 

Rewrite the following sentences changing each verb 
into the Active Voice: 

1. The corn has been badly damaged by the late 
storm. 

2. The subject was dropped by us and has not been 
mentioned since. 

3. Forty thousand persons were killed in 1883 by the 
eruption of the volcano of Krakatoa. 



OF VERBS 279 

4. It will be said by the newspapers that congratulations 
are showered on you by your friends. 

5. In 1453 Constantinople was captured by the Turks 
and made the capital of their empire. 

Exercise 227 

Rewrite the following sentences, changing each into 
the Passive form, and tell the use in the new sentences 
of the italicized words: 

1. He kept me waiting. 

Model. I was kept waiting by him. A predicate 
participle. 

2. This made him angry. 

3. God called the light day. 

4. She promised me a book. 

5. I gave him a receipt in full. - "">, 

6. They painted the house green. 

7. Victoria made Tennyson a baron. 

8. Perseverance keeps honor bright. 

9. Mother bought Alice a doll. 

10. He wrought the castle much annoy. 

11. He told them many strange stories of the sea. 



187. Caution. The passive voice, denoting action 
received by the subject of the sentence, must not 
be confounded with predicate words denoting the 
condition of the subject, e.g., "He is gone"; "Our 
revels now are ended." (32.) 



2 8o THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

The passive voice must also be carefully dis- 
tinguished from the progressive tenses (202) of 
the active voice: as, 

Passive: "Birds are shot for their feathers." 
Progressive: "The birds are singing" 

Exercise 228 

Tell whether the italicized words in Exercise 24 are 
Predicate Adjectives or Participles, or parts of Passive 
Verb-phrases. 

Exercise 229 

Tell whether the italicized words in the following 
sentences are Predicate Adjectives or Participles, or 
parts of Passive Verb-phrases: 

1. The melancholy days are come. 

2. The school bell is rung at nine o'clock. 

3. The quality of mercy is not strained. 

4. The apples were picked yesterday. 

5. The spectacle was well adapted to excite wonder. 

6. Man is born unto trouble as the sparks fly upward. 

7. The lines are fallen unto me in pleasant places. 

8. Rome was not built in a day. 

9. I am not prepared to recite this morning. 
10. A fool and his money are soon parted. 

Exercise 230 

Make a list of the verbs in the following sentences 
and tell the Voice of each: 

1. Annie is studying her lesson. 

2. Tom has been mending his kite. 



OF VERBS 281 

3. The lawn is being watered by the gardener. 

4. The grammar class is taught by Miss H. 

5. By whom was this ink spilled? 

188. Indirect Objects in Passive Sentences. 

When sentences containing a direct and an indirect 
object are turned into the passive form, it would 
seem that the direct object should become the 
subject of the passive verb, because it denotes the 
object which directly receives the action expressed 
by the verb; and that the indirect object should 
remain unchanged : thus, 

Ind. Obj. 
(Active) He handed her a chair. 

Ind. Obj. 
(Passive) A chair was handed her. 

As a matter of fact, however, not the direct 
object, but the indirect is sometimes made the sub- 
ject of the passive verb : as, 

She was handed a chair. 

This cannot be logically explained, but it is 
accepted as good English. " Chair" is for conven- 
ience called a Retained Object. 

Exercise 231 

Change the following sentences into the Passive form: 

1 . Harry gave me a penny. 

2. She promised me a book. 



282 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

3. I gave him a receipt in full. 

4. Mother bought Alice a doll. 

5. He paid the men their wages. 

6. He wrought the castle much annoy. 

7. Nature teaches beasts to know their friends. 

8. He told them many strange stories of the sea. 

III. NUMBER AND PERSON 

189. Inflection for Number and Person. In 

some languages the form of the verb changes with 
the number and person of the subject, and the verb 
is said to agree with its subject in number and person. 

In Old English such number and person forms 
of the verb were numerous. 

In modern English the form of the verb "be" 
still changes with the number and person of the 
subject, as follows : 

Present 

Singular Plural 

First Person: I am We 

Second Person: You are (Thou art) You \ are 
Third Person: He is They J 

Past 

First Person: I was We *| 

, Second Person: You were (Thou wast) You }> were 

Third Person: He was They J 

Other verbs in modern English have lost all their 
inflections for number and person, except in the 



OF VERBS 283 

second and third persons of the singular number, as 
follows : 

First Person: I make. 

Second Person: Thou makest. 

Third Person: He makes (make/A). 

The termination "-st" (subject "thou") is used only in 
Biblical and poetical language (127). 

The termination "-th" or "-eth," which was once used 
instead of "-s," survives only in Biblical language and in 
poetry: as, "He that maketh haste to be rich shall not be 
innocent"; "He prayeth well who loveth well." 

In common use the only inflection for number 
and person is "-s" in the third person singular, 
except in the verb "be." 

190. Construction of Number Forms. Examine 
the verbs and their subjects in the following 
sentences : 

(1) A sense of duty pursues us ever. (Singular subject; 
singular verb.) 

(2) Troubles never come singly. (Plural subject; plural 
verb.) 

(3) Half of them are gone. (Subject singular in form but 
plural in sense; plural verb.) 

(4) "Gulliver's Travels" was written by Swift. (Subject 
plural in form but singular in sense; singular verb.) 

(5) Tom and his sister were there. (Two singular subjects 
together forming a plural; plural verb.) 

(6) Bread and butter is good enough for me. (Two 
singular subjects taken together as one thing; singular verb.) 

(7) Neither Fred nor his sister was there. (Two singular 
subjects considered separately; singular verb.) 



284 " THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

You observe that, in general, a singular form of 
the verb is used when the subject is singular or 
regarded as singular; a plural form, when the sub- 
ject is plural or regarded as plural. 

The principle that a verb agrees with its subject 
in number is in most cases followed unconsciously. 
A few constructions, however, require special notice : 

i. The pronoun "you" takes a plural verb even when the 
meaning is singular: as, "Tom, you were late." 

2. A collective noun in the singular number takes a 
singular verb when the collection is viewed as a whole; a 
plural verb when the members of the collection are thought 
of as individuals (136): as, "The committee was discharged." 
(Here the committee is thought of as a body.) "The com- 
mittee were eating dinner." (The committee ate, not as a 
body, but as separate individuals.) 

3. Sometimes a singular noun takes a plural sense from the 
presence of two or more distinguishing adjectives: as, 
"Mental, moral, and physical education here go hand in hand." 

4. When subjects connected by "or" or "nor" are of differ- 
ent numbers, the verb usually agrees with the nearest: as, 
"One or two were there." 

Caution. When one or more plural words come between 
a singular subject and its verb, a writer is in danger of for- 
getting the real subject and of giving to the verb the number 
of the nearest substantive. The following sentences are 
correct: "The formation of paragraphs is very important." 
(Here the subject is "formation.") "Every one of us has 
had this feeling." (Here the subject is "Every one.") 

Words joined to a singular subject by "with," "together 
with," "in addition to," or "as well as," are not on the same 
grammatical level as the subject, but are parenthetical, and 



OF VERBS 285 

therefore do not affect the number of the verb: as, "Justice, 
as well as mercy, allows it." 

Exercise 232 

Insert in each of the blanks the proper form of the 
verb "be" and give the reason for your choice: 

1. I know you there. 

2. One of you mistaken. 

3. One or two ready now. 

4. Two years a long time. 

5. Five years' interest due. 

6. A hundred yards not far. 

7. There many things to do. 

8. Bread and milk good diet. 

9. The public cordially invited. 

10. Each of the sisters beautiful. 

11. Neither of the girls very much at ease. 

12. A number of the boys waiting outside. 

13. Manual and physical training necessary. 

14. Either the master or his servants to blame. 

15. Two thousand dollars a year a good salary. 

16. Fluency and eloquence two different things. 

17. Neither the painter nor his picture very famous. 

18. She has one of the prettiest faces that ever seen. 

19. "Tales of a Traveler" published by Irving in 1824. 

20. General Custer, with all his men, massacred by 

Indians. 

191. "Don't." "Don't," which is a contraction 
of "do not," and which is proper enough in its place, 
should not be misused for "doesn't" when the sub- 



286 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

ject is in the third person singular. The following 
sentences are correct: "Why doesn't she come?" 
"Why don't they come?" 

Exercise 233 

Insert the proper contraction (don't, doesn't) in 
each blanky and give the reason for your choice: 

i. Why he write? 

2. It seem possible. 

3. She like croquet. 

4. I know what it is to be afraid. 

5. The captain says he know what it is to be afraid. 

192. Construction of Person Forms. A difficulty 
arises in using the personal forms of verbs when the 
subject consists of two or more nouns or pronouns 
of different persons connected by either — or, or 
neither — nor. For example, shall we say: "Either he 
or I is mistaken," or "Either he or I am mistaken"? 

We usually, but by no means always, let the verb 
agree with the nearest subject; or, we give the pref- 
erence to the first person over the second or third. 

It is better to avoid such difficulties (1) by using 
some verb that has the same form for all persons: 
as, "Either he or I must be mistaken"; or (2) by re- 
arranging the sentence: as, "Either you are mistaken, 
or I am"; "One of us is mistaken," etc. 

193. Verbs with Relative Pronouns as Subjects. 

When the subject of a verb is a relative pronoun, the 



OF VERBS 287 

verb takes the number and person of the antecedent 
for which the pronoun stands: as, "I, who am your 
friend, would not pain you needlessly"; "You, who 
are my friend, should not deceive me"; "He who 
is my friend will help me." 

Exercise 234 

Tell which of the italicized forms is right, and give 
the reason: 

1 . She is one of the best mothers that has {have) ever lived. 
Note. The antecedent of "that" is "mothers." 

2. My room is one of those that overlook {overlooks) the 
lake. 

3. It was one of the best games that has {have) ever been 
played on our field. 

4. You are not the first man that has {have) been deceived 
by appearances. 

5. He is one of those restless boys who is {are) always 
wanting to do something. 

6. One of his many good traits that come {comes) to my 
mind was his modesty. 

7. "Treasure Island" is one of the best pirate stories that 
was {were) ever written. 

8. Stevenson \ s one of the writers who is {are) destined 
to be immortal. 

9. I am the man who have {has) charge of the boats. 

10. Please show me that one of the pictures that is {are) 
most like her. 



288 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



IV. Tense 

194. Tense Defined. Compare the verbs in the 
following sentences: 

I see the Brooklyn Bridge. 
I saw the Brooklyn Bridge. 
I shall see the Brooklyn Bridge. 

Here we have three different forms of the same 
verb, denoting the same action, but referring it to 
different times— the present, the past, and the 
future. 

A difference in the form of a verb to denote time 
is called Tense (Old French, "time"). 

A verb that refers to present time is in the 
Present Tense. A verb that refers to past time is 
in the Past Tense. A verb that refers to future 
time is in the Future Tense. 

Definition. Tense is a difference in the form of a 
verb to denote time. 

Definition. The present tense is the form of the 
verb that denotes present time. 

Definition. The past tense is the form of the 
verb that denotes past time. 

Definition. The future tense is the form of the 
verb that denotes future time. 

195. Simple Tenses. The English verb has only- 
two simple tense forms: the Present Tense, which 
is the same as the root-form of the verb: as, "I 



OF VERBS 289 

write" "X hope" ; and the Past Tense, which is 
formed from the present by inflection: as, "I wrote" 
"I hoped." 

To denote future action the present tense was at first 
employed, as it still is occasionally: as, "We begin practice 



196. Formation of the Past Tense : Regular Verbs. 

Examine the forms of the verbs "obey," "hope," 
and "mean" in the following sentences: 

Present Past 

I obey you. I obeyed you. 

We hope for the best. We hoped for the best. 

They mean well. They meant well. 

You observe that the past tense is formed by 
adding "-ed," "-d," or u -t." 

A verb that forms its past tense by adding "-ed," 
"-d," or "-t," is called a Regular Verb. 

Definition. A regular verb is a verb that forms 
its past tense by adding "-ed," "-d," or "-t." 

Most regular verbs are of later origin than irregular verbs. 
Hence this mode of forming the past tense is sometimes called 
the New Conjugation. It is also sometimes called the Weak 
Conjugation. 

Many regular verbs undergo an internal vowel change, 
like irregular verbs; but they differ from irregular verbs in 
having an added "-d" or "-t" in the past tense: as, tell, told; 
teach, taught; buy, bought. 

Some regular verbs change "d" of the present to "t" in 
the past: as, build, buil/; send, sen/; spend, spen/. 



2qo THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

197. Formation of the Past Tense : Irregular Verbs. 

Examine the forms of the verb "give" in the following 
sentences: 

Present Past 

They give liberally. They gave liberally. 

You observe that the past is formed from the 
present by changing the vowel "i" to "a", 

A verb that forms its past tense by an internal 
vowel change, without any suffix, is called an 
Irregular Verb. 

Definition. An irregular verb is a verb that forms 
its past tense by an internal vowel change, without 
any suffix. 

Irregular verbs are among the oldest verbs in our language; 
therefore their mode of forming the past tense is sometimes 
called the Old Conjugation. It is also sometimes called the 
Strong Conjugation. 

All these verbs originally had the ending "-n" or "-en" 
in the past participle (93); but this ending has been lost 
in many verbs: as, "fight," "fought [en]." 

198. Formation of the Past Tense : Mixed Verbs. 

Some irregular verbs have adopted the method of 
the new conjugation while retaining also that of the 
old: as, crow, crew or crowed; dig, dug or digged; 
hang, hung or hanged; thrive, throve or thrived. 

A few verbs form their past tense according to one con- 
jugation, and their past participle according to another: as, 
hew, hewed, hewn: show, showed, shown; sow, sowed, sown; 
swell, swelled, swollen; wake, woke, waked. 



OF VERBS 291 

199. Phrasal Tenses. In course of time the two 
simple tenses were found insufficient; and to denote 
further distinctions of time, verb-phrases were em- 
ployed, formed by means of auxiliary verbs. 

200. Phrasal Tenses: Future. To form a Fu- 
ture Tense we use "shall" or "will" as an auxiliary, 
followed by the root infinitive without "to": as, 

"I shall write to him"; 
"He will write to me." 

The distinction between shall and will is given in 210. 

Exercise 235 

Make a list of the Verbs in the following sentences, 
and tell the Tense of each. 

1. Here stands the man. 

2. Who killed Cock Robin? 

3. We shall surely expect you. 

4. He advanced to the council table. 
•5. No mate, no comrade, Lucy knew. 

6. We fought because we believe in justice. 

7. Still sits the schoolhouse by the road. 

8. Wild animals suffer when kept in captivity. 

9. You will find many beautiful flowers growing on the 
prairie. 

10. Honor and shame from no condition rise; 
Act well thy part, there all the honor lies. 

Exercise 236 

Write fifteen sentences containing the Present, Past, 
and Future Tenses of "fight" "stand" "sing" "play" 
and "laugh." 



292 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

201. Phrasal Tenses: Perfect. To present an 
action as completed at a given time we use the present, 
past, or future of "have" as an auxiliary, followed 
by the past participle: as, 

" There! I have written my exercise"; 

" Yesterday, when the clock struck nine, I had written two 
pages"; 

" To-morrow, by dinner time I shall have written all my 
letters." 

Since these phrasal tenses denote action as com- 
pleted or perfect in present, past, or future time, 
they are called the Perfect Tenses. 

The Present Perfect Tense ("have written") 
denotes action completed at the present time. 

The Past Perfect Tense ("had written") denotes 
action completed at some point in past time. 

The Future Perfect Tense ("shall have written") 
denotes action that will be completed at some point 
in future time. 

Originally "have" in the perfect tenses was not an 
auxiliary, and the participle described the object, as when 
we now say: "I have my letters written" ; I had two pages 
written" ; "I shall have my letters written" 

Exercise 237 

Make a list of the Verbs in the following sentences, 
and tell the Tense of each. 

i. John had read the book. 

2. Katharine has just finished it. 



OF VERBS 293 

3. By to-morrow I shall have finished it. 

4. I have thought of you frequently of late. 

5. have called, but ye have not answered. 

6. You will have paid too dear for your whistle. 

7. His father had forbidden his accompanying us. 

8. He had been elected captain of the team only a few 
days before. 

9. By the time I reach Paris I shall have traveled ten 
thousand miles. 

10. I had often been told of the picturesque bandits and 
beggars that infest the highways of the East, but I had 
never met the gentry in such force. 

Exercise 238 

Write fifteen sentences containing the Perfect Tenses 
of "fight," "stand," "sing," "play," and "laugh." 

202. Phrasal Tenses : Progressive. Compare the 
verbs in the following sentences: 

I write my letters carefully. 
am writing my letters carefully. 

Both of these sentences refer to present time, but 
with a difference. 

In the first sentence the simple present, "write," 
does not necessarily mean that the writing is going 
on at the present moment; it merely asserts a present 
custom. 

In order to represent an action as going on or 
progressing, we usually put the present, past, or 



294 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

future form of "be" before trie present partici- 
ple: as, 

I am writing letters; 

I was writing letters; 

I shall be writing letters. ■ 

Since such phrasal tenses denote action as pro- 
gressing in present, past, or future time, they are 
called Progressive Tenses. 

The Present Progressive Tense ( a am writing") 
represents an action as going on at the present time. 

The Past Progressive Tense ("was writing") 
represents an action as going on at some point in 
past time. 

The Future Progressive Tense ("shall be writing") 
represents an action as going on at some point in 
future time. 

203. Phrasal Tenses: Perfect Progressive. Com- 
pare the verbs in the following sentences: 

(i) I have written a composition. 

(2) I have been writing a composition. 

In the sentence "I have written a composition/' the 
verb "have written" merely represents the action 
as completed. 

If we wish to add to the idea of completion the 
idea of previously going on or progressing, we com- 
bine the perfect tenses of "be" with the present par- 
ticiple: as, 



OF VERBS 295 

I have been writing a composition; 
I had been writing a composition; 
I shall be writing a composition. 

•Since the phrasal tenses denote action as completed 
in present, past, or future time, after going on or pro- 
gressing, they are called respectively the Present 
Perfect Progressive Tense, the Past Perfect Pro- 
gressive Tense, and the Future Perfect Progressive 
Tense. 

Exercise 239 

Make a list of the Verbs in the following sentences 
and tell the Tense of each. 

1. The sun has gone down. 

2. He had been walking all the morning. 

3. Lucy is expecting her uncle from Boston. 

4. He had written his mother from California. 

5. They have been weighed in the balance and found 
wanting. 

6. I had spoken to him frankly and asked him to recon- 
sider his decision. 

7. When the bell rings I shall have been writing twenty 
minutes. 

8. Yesterday evening my hand was cramped, for I had 
been writing all day. 

9. I have been writing letters this morning, and by noon 
I shall have finished my correspondence. 

10. He had been considered quite a wit in his youth, and 
was still trying to live up to that reputation. 



2 9 6 the parts of speech 



Exercise 240 

Write six sentences illustrating each of the Pro- 
gressive Tenses of "fight" and "stand" 

204. Phrasal Tenses: Emphatic, Interrogative, 
and Negative. In the sentences "I write my letters 
carefully" and "I wrote to her yesterday," "write" 
and "wrote" merely assert action. 

If we wish to make the same assertions emphatically 
in the face of doubt or denial, we substitute for the 
simple tenses certain phrasal tenses formed by put- 
ting the present or the past of "do" before the root 
infinitive of the principal verb: as, 

"I do write ray letters carefully"; 
"I did write to her yesterday." 

These phrasal tenses are appropriately called the 
Present Emphatic Tense and the Past Emphatic 
Tense. 

Other tenses are made emphatic by laying emphasis on 
the auxiliary that is already present: as, "I have written 
my letters." 

In Negative and Interrogative sentences, the 
phrasal tenses formed with "do" and "did" are 
substituted for the simple tenses, without the 
effect of emphasis: as, " Do you write to her often?" 
"Youdid not write carefully." 



OF VERBS 2 97 

205. Summary of Tense Forms. Gathering to- 
gether the different tense forms described in the 
preceding sections, we may tabulate the tenses of 
the English verb as follows: 

Ordinary Emphatic Progressive 

Present write do write am writing 

Past wrote did write was writing 

Future will write will be writing 

Present Perf. have written have been writing 

Past Perf. had written had been writing 

Future Perf. will have written will have been writing 

Note. Besides these regular tenses, we sometimes employ 
a sort of future tense phrase formed by combining the 
progressive tenses of "go" with the root infinitive of the 
principal verb preceded by "to": as, "I am going to write a 
composition"; "I have been going to write to him for a week." 
It is best to resolve such phrases into their parts, rather 
than to classify them as parts of the tense system. The 
same is true of such phrases as "I used to write" and "I am 
about to write." 

Exercise 241 

Make a list of the Verbs in Exercises 22 and 25 and 
give the Tense of each. 

Omit 22: 6-8, 13-15, -18-19; 2 5 : 8-9. 

206. Principal Parts of a Verb. The present, the 
past, and the past participle are commonly called 
the Principal Parts of a verb, because from them 
we can determine all the other forms or parts. 

The principal parts of a verb are the forms used 
in rilling the blanks in the following sentences: 

Present Past Past Participle 
I now. I yesterday. I have . 



298 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



Exercise 242 

Give the principal parts of the following verbs and 
tell whether the verbs are regular or irregular: 



arise 


blow 


come 


fight 


hope 


seek 


bake 


break 


cost 


find 


keep 


send 


beat 


bring 


dream 


freeze 


laugh 


set 


begin 


build 


eat 


have 


lay 


sing 


bend 


buy 


fall 


hear 


lead 


sit 


beseech 


catch 


feed 


hide 


lend 


teach 


bind 


choose 


feel 


hold 


make 


tell 



207. Misused Forms. The past tense and the 
past participle of the verbs in the following list are 
often confounded or incorrectly formed: 



Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


begin 


began 


begun 


blow 


blew 


blown 


break 


broke 


broken 


burst 


burst 


burst 


come 


came 


come 


dive 


dived 


dived 


do 


did 


done 


drive 


drove 


driven 


eat 


ate 


eaten 


fly 


flew 


flown 


flow 


flowed 


flowed 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


forget 


forgot 


forgotten 


get 


got 


got 


go 


went 


gone 


lay ("to cause to lie") 


laid 


laid 


lie ("to recline") 


lay 


lain 



OF VERBS 



299 



Present Past Past Participle 

prove proved proved 

ride rode ridden 

rise rose risen 

raise ("to cause to rise") raised raised 

run ran run 

see saw seen 

set ("to put"; of the sun, set set 

moon, etc., "to sink") 

sit sat sat 

shake shook shaken 

show showed shown 

speak spoke spoken 

slay slew slain 

steal stole stolen 

take took taken 

throw threw thrown 

wake woke waked 

write wrote written 

In using the verbs drink, ring, shrink, sing, sink, spring, 
swim, it is better to confine the forms in "a" to the past 

tense, and the forms in "u" to the past participle: as, "The 
bell rang five minutes ago"; "Yes, the bell has rung." 



Exercise 243 

Change the italicized verbs in these sentences to the 
Past Tense: 

1. I do it myself. 

2. Tom swims very well. 

3. Harry sees me coming. 

4. The sun wakes me early. 

5. The wind blows furiously, 

6. They do their work well. 



300 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

7. Helen comes in every day. 

8. The guests begin to go home. 

9. The Susquehanna River overflows its banks. 

10. Barbara lays her coat on the chair. 

11. They sit in the third pew from the front. 

12. Both short-stop and pitcher run for the ball. 

13. The wild goose flies southward in the autumn. 

14. They eat their supper as if they were half starved. 

15. The Negro women set their baskets on their heads. 

16. George dives better than any other boy in the crowd. 

17. The catcher often throws the ball to the second base. 

18. The savages who live on this island slay their captives. 

19. The workmen lay the rails for the track with great care. 

20. Obedient to the doctor's directions, she lies down an 
hour every day. 

Exercise 244 

Change the italicized verbs in these sentences to the 
Perfect Tense: 

1. He writes home. 

2. I forget his name. 

3. The sleeper awakes. 

4. He stole my watch. 

5. Ethel broke her arm. 

6. They go by steamer. 

7. Some one takes my hat. 

8. I see the President often. 

9. He gets along fairly well. 

10. They slay their prisoners. 

11. The enemy come in force. 

12. The boys dive three times. 



OF VERBS 301 

13. I set the lamp on the table. 

14. A mist rises before my eyes. 

15. The water in my pitcher froze. 

16. He speaks his declamation well. 

17. The boys are eating their supper. 

18. He throws cold water on my plan. 

19. The Ohio River overflows its banks. 

20. He sits by the hour talking politics. 

21. Rab shakes the little dog by the neck. 

22. This proves the truth of my assertion. 

23. The wind blows my papers off the table. 

24. A robin flies to the vines by my window. 

25. John is driving the cows out of the corn. 

26. I lie on the couch twenty minutes to rest. 

27. This fact clearly shows the prisoner's guilt. 

28. He wakes me every night by his restlessness. 

29. He rides alone from Litchfield to Waterbury. 

30. They lay burdens on me greater than I can bear. 

208. 1 Uses of the Simple Present. The simple 
present tense has the following uses: 

1. To denote action belonging to a period of time that 
includes the present: as, "He goes to town every Saturday"; 
"Two and two make four." 

2. As an occasional substitute for the present progressive, 
to denote action going on at the present moment: as, "I 
see a robin"; "I hear the bell." 

x To the Teacher. A complete discussion of the uses of English 
tenses is impossible here, nor would it be desirable; for the tenses and 
their uses are, for the most part, learned unconsciously from con- 
versation and reading. The following discussion is limited to the few 
instances in which experience shows that special comment is helpful. 



302 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

3. As an occasional substitute for the future: as, "We sail 
for Europe next Saturday." 

4. In vivid narrative as a substitute for the past: as, 
"At this news Caesar hurries to Gaul." This is called the 
Historical Present. 

209. Uses of the Present Perfect. The present 
perfect tense, which ordinarily represents some- 
thing as completed at the time of speaking, is also 
used, instead of a past tense, to represent a past 
action (1) as continuing to the present, at least in 
its consequences, or (2) as belonging to a period of 
time not yet ended: as, 

(1) "I have lost my book." (So that now I am without it.) 
"We have lived here five years." (We still live here.) 

(2) "I have seen him three times to-day." 

"We have had a great deal of rain this year" 

The use of a past tense in any of these sentences 
would cut away the action from all connection with 
present time: as, 

(1) "I lost my book." (It may have since been found.) 
"We lived here five years." (We have moved away.) 

(2) "I saw him three times yesterday." 
"We had a great deal of rain last year" 

Exercise 245 

Distinguish in meaning between: 

1. He studies (is studying) now. 

2. I came (have come) to see you. . - 



OF VERBS 303 

3. I read (am reading) Thackeray. 

4. He lived (has lived) here a good many years. 

5. I wrote (had written, was writing) my letter when he 
came. 

Exercise 246 

Tell which of the italicized forms is correct and 
give the reason for your answer: 

1. I was {have been) here yesterday. 

2. I knew {have known) him since he was a child. 

3. How far did you say it is {was) from here to Chicago? 

4. When we saw {had seen) everything in Geneva we went 
on to Paris. 

5. Mr. Williams regrets that a previous engagement 
prevents {will prevent) him from accepting Miss Smith's kind 
invitation for Monday evening. 

210. Shall or Will. There is an important dis- 
tinction between the auxiliaries used in forming the 
future tenses. 

At first " shall" and "will" were notional verbs, 
"shall" meaning "to be obliged," and "will" mean- 
ing "to wish." 

At present they often retain some trace of their 
original meanings, "will" implying a reference to 
the will of the subject, and "shall" implying obliga- 
tion or compulsion: as, "I will never forsake you"; 
"He shall be brought to justice." Just as often, 
however, "shall" and "will" are mere auxiliaries, 
with no trace of their original meaning: as, "The 
bell will soon ring, and I shall be late." 



304 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Modern usage in independent sentences may be 
exhibited as follows: 

Simple Future Future, with added 

idea of determination 

I (we) shall I (we) will 

You will 1 You shall 2 

He (they) will He (they) shall 2 

In clauses introduced by the conjunction "that" 
expressed or understood, the same auxiliary is used 
that would be used if the clause were an independent 
sentence: as, "I fear that we shall miss the train." 
(Independent: "We shall miss the train.") 

Such clauses are common after say, declare, think, believe, 
hope, fear, and words of similar meaning. 

In all other subordinate clauses "shall" in all per- 
sons denotes simple futurity; "will" in all persons 
implies an exercise of will: as, "When we shall 
appear (simple futurity) we shall be like Him"; "If 
you will come (i.e., are willing to come), we will give 
you a good time." 

In questions "shall" is the proper auxiliary in the 
first person; in the second and third persons the 
same auxiliary is used that is expected in the answer: 
as, "Shall we go to-morrow?" "Will you go?" 
{Answer: "I will go.") "Shall you be glad when 
to-morrow comes?" {Answer: "I shall be glad.") 

"Should" and "would" are the past tenses of 

Sometimes used in courteous command to a subordinate officer. 
2 Also used in speaking of what is destined to take place. 



OF VERBS 305 

"shall" and "will," and in general follow the same 
rules. See, however, section 217. 

Exercise 247 

Distinguish in meaning between: 

1. He will (shall) not go. 

2. Shall (will) you be there? 

3. I shall (will) not hear you. 

4. She will (shall) not see me. 

5. He thought I would (should) go. 

6. We will (shall) see you to-morrow. 

7. If he would (should) help, we could do it. 

8. You will (shall) know my answer to-morrow. 

9. If she disobeyed, she would (should) be punished. 

10. Do you think I would (should) go under the circum- 
stances? 

Exercise 248 

Insert the proper auxiliary ("shall" "will") in each 
blank in the following sentences: 

1. we go to-morrow? 

2. We have rain soon. 

3. I be glad to see you. 

4. ■ you be able to come? 

5. I be twelve in December. 

6. If I do not hurry, I be late. 

7. I hope you- be able to come. 

8. I am afraid we miss the train. 

9. She says she be glad to see us. 

10. We never forget this kindness. 

11. we have time to get our tickets? 



306 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

12. We be pleased to have you call. 

13. I fear that I not be able to come. 

14. He thinks he not be able to come. 

15. John thinks he be sick to-morrow. 

16. John thinks James be sick to-morrow. 

17. It is probable that I be away at that time. 

18. you meet me at the corner in five minutes? 

19. They declare they never forget this kindness. 

20. we have another chance at this examination? 

Exercise 249 

Insert the proper auxiliary ("would" "should") in 
each blank in the following sentences: 

1. He thought I be hurt. 

2. He thought he be hurt. 

3. He thought she be hurt. 

4. He thought you be hurt. 

5. I like to see a yacht race. 

6. At first I didn't think I like Latin. 

7. If I tried to walk a tight-rope, I fall. 

8. I asked him whether he come again. 

9. I think they have known better. 

10. I — — feel glad if she tell me wherein I have 

offended her. 

V. MOOD 

211. Mood Defined. Compare the verbs in the 
following sentences: 

He is here. 

Would he were here. 

Be here at daylight. 



OF VERBS 307 

In these sentences we have three different forms 
of the verb "be," indicating different ways in which 
the thought is presented to the mind. "Is" shows 
that it is presented as a fact; "were" shows that 
it is presented as a mere thought (he is not here); 
"be" shows that it is presented as a command. 

A difference in the form of a verb to show the 
manner in which the thought is presented is called 
Mood. 

The form of a verb which presents a thought as a 
fact is called the Indicative Mood. 

The form of a verb which presents a thought as a 
mere thought, uncertain or contrary to fact, is called 
the Subjunctive Mood. 

The form of a verb which presents a thought as a 
command, request, or consent is called the Impera- 
tive Mood. 

Definition. Mood is a difference in the form of a 
verb to show the manner in which the thought is 
presented. 

Definition. The indicative mood is the form of a 
verb which presents a thought as a fact. 

Definition. The subjunctive mode is the form of a 
verb which presents a thought as a mere thought, 
uncertain or contrary to fact. 

Definition. The imperative mood is the form of a 
verb which presents a thought as a command, re- 
quest, or consent. 



3 o8 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

212. The Indicative Mood. The indicative mood 
is the most common. It is used (i) in expressing a 
fact, or what is assumed to be a fact, and (2) in ask- 
ing questions of fact: as, "Is he well?" "Who was 
he?" 

Caution. The indicative is often used in sentences that 
express what is uncertain or contrary to fact; but in such 
cases the uncertainty or untruth is expressed by some other 
word, and not by the form of the verb: as, " Perhaps it will rain"; 
"He is not here." 

The subjunctive, on the other hand, often expresses un- 
certainty or untruth by its own form without the help of other 
words: as, "Were he here, he would go with us." 

213. The Subjunctive Mood: Form. In form 
the subjunctive differs from the indicative in the 
following ways : 

1. In the verb "be" the subjunctive has distinct 
forms for the present and past tenses, namely: 

.Present , , Past 



Indicative 


Subjunctive 


Indicative 


Subjunctive 


I am 


I be 


I was 


I were 


Thou art 


Thou be 


Thou wast 


Thou wert 


He is 


lie be 


He was 


He were 


We are 


We be 


We were ' 


We were 


You are 


You be 


You were 


You were 



They are They be They were They were 

Examples of the Subjunctive of "Be" in Sentences. 

(1) "J u dge not, that ye be not judged"; (2) "Hallowed be Thy 
name"; (3) "If I were you, I would not say that"; (4) "Would 
that Alice were here!" 



OF VERBS 309 

2. In other verbs the subjunctive has the same 
form as the indicative, except that in the second 
and third persons singular there are no personal 
endings: as, 

, Present . . Past k 



Indicative Subjunctive Indicative Subjunctive 

I write I write I wrote I wrote 

Thou writest Thou write Thou wrotest Thou wrote 

He writes He write He wrote He wrote 

Examples of the Subjunctive of Other Verbs than "Be." 

(5) "It is better he die"; (6) "Govern well thy appetite, lest 
sin surprise thee"; (7) "Long live the King!" (8) "If thy hand 
offend thee, cut it off." 

214. The Subjunctive Mood: Uses. In ordinary 
modern English the subjunctive mood is used to 
express volition (i.e. will or determination), wish, 
and conditions contrary to fact, and in these uses 
it is quite frequent. Thus: 

1. Volition: "I move that Mr. Jones be made chair- 
man"; "I insist that he do it" ; "Everyone me." 

2. Wish: "God forbid!" "0, that I were a man"; 
"Hallowed be thy name." 

3. Condition contrary to fact: "If I were you, I would 
go." (218.) 

In literary English the subjunctive mood is used 
to express, in addition to the above, anticipation 
(i.e. looking forward), obligation or propriety, ideal 
certainty (i.e. certainty in an imaginary case), and 



3io THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

indirectness (i.e. indirect questions and quotations). 
Thus: 

4. Anticipation: "Judge not, that ye be not judged"; 
"Here will I stand till Caesar pass along." 

5. Obligation or propriety: "It is better he die"; "It is 
necessary that she be told" 

6. Ideal certainty: "Love were clear gain." (Browning.) 

7. Indirectness: "When I ask her if she love me. . . ." 
(Tennyson.) 

Some fixed expressions in everyday English con- 
tain survivals of other uses of the subjunctive mood: 
as, "Be that as it may"; "Suffice it to say"; "She 
will be twenty, come Christmas." 

The subjunctive is sometimes used in neutral conditions 

(218): as, 

"If it be asked why he did it, the answer is easy." 

The subjunctive is much less used than it was formerly; 
but it is still common in the writings of authors who are 
artistic and exact in expression; and a knowledge of its form 
and uses is important in the study of foreign languages. 1 

215. The Subjunctive Mood: Tenses. The use 

of the tenses of the subjunctive is peculiar, the time 
referred to not always corresponding to the name 
of the tense. Frequently the present subjunctive 
refers to future time, and the past subjunctive to 

1 "Some people seem to think that the subjunctive mood is just as good as lost, that it 
is doomed, and that its retention is hopeless. If its function were generally appreciated, 
it might even now be saved. ... If we lose the subjunctive verb, it will certainly be a 
grievous impoverishment to our literary language, were it only for its value in giving 
variation to diction — and I make bold to assert that the writer who helps to keep it up 
deserves public gratitude."— John Earle: "'English Prose, Its Elements, History, and 
Usage," p. 172. 



OF VERBS 311 

present time: as, (Future time) "Strike ere it be 
too late"; (Present Time), "0, that I were a man." 

216. The Imperative Mood. The imperative 
mood expresses commands, requests, or consent 
addressed to the person spoken to. It is used only 
in the second person; and it has the same form for 
both singular and plural: as (singular or plural), 
"Be just, and fear not." It is usually distinguished 
from the present indicative by the omission of the 
subject. 

Caution. Commands or requests addressed to the person 

spoken to must not be confounded with wishes concerning 

a person or thing spoken of: as, "Long live the Queen!" 

"Thy kingdom come." In these sentences the verbs are in 

the subjunctive. 

Exercise 250 

Make a list of the Verbs in the following sentences, 
and tell the Mood of each: 

I. 

1. God forbid. 

2. Love me, love my dog. 

3. Thy money perish with thee. 

4. The law is good if a man use it lawfully. 

5. Take heed that ye do not your alms before men. 

6. He serves his party best who serves the country best. 

7. Gather up the fragments that remain, that nothing be 
lost. 

8. If it be possible, as much as lieth in you, live peaceably 
with all men. 



312 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

9. Boast not thyself of to-morrow; for thou knowest not 
what a day may bring forth. 

10. Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow; they 
toil not, neither do they spin. 

II. 

11. God sifted a whole nation that he might send choice 
grain over into this wilderness. 

' 12. It were better for him that a millstone were hanged 
about his neck, and he cast into the sea. 

13. If I were an American, as I am an Englishman, while 
a foreign troop was landed in my country I never would lay 
down my arms, — never! never!! never!!! 

14. Come what come may, 
Time and the hour runs through the roughest day. 

15. Shall I, wasting in despair, 

Die because a woman's fair? 
Or make pale my cheeks with care, 

'Cause another's rosy are? 
Be she fairer than the day, 
Or the flowery meads in May, 

If she be not so to me, 

What care I how fair she be? 

217. Mood-Ideas Expressed by Auxiliaries. Many 
ideas which in old English were expressed by mood- 
forms are in modern English expressed by auxiliary 
verbs. Thus : 

1. Anticipation: "Before he shall come"; " Before he 
should come." (Literary.) 

2. Volition: "I insist that he shall do it"; " I insisted 
that he should do it," 



OF VERBS 313 

3. Wish: "I hope you may succeed" ; " I hoped you 
might succeed" 

4. Obligation or Propriety: "It is right that he should 
do it." 

5. Natural Likelihood: "There are many reasons why 
he should {ought to) make a good teacher." 

6. Possibility: "It is possible that he may make a good 
teacher"; "We were afraid that we might miss the train." 

7. Ideal Certainty: "I am sure that he wou Id fail." 

8. Less Vivid Future Condition: "If he should try, he 
would succeed." (218.) 

218. Moods in Conditional Sentences. A sen- 
tence containing a condition or supposition (e.g. // 
it is clear, I will go) is called a Conditional Sentence. 
The clause expressing the condition is called the 
Conditional Clause, or, more briefly, the Condition. 
The clause expressing the conclusion is called the 
Conclusional Clause, or, more briefly, the Conclu- 
sion. 

A condition may refer to present, past, or future 
time. 

If it refers to present or past time, the form of the 
condition may imply nothing with regard to its 
reality or non-reality, or it may imply that the 
condition is contrary to fact. If it implies nothing 
with regard to reality or non-reality, it is called a 
Neutral Condition. If it implies that the condition 
is contrary to fact, it is called a Condition Contrary 
to Fact. Similarly, we have neutral conclusions and 
conclusions contrary to fact. 



314 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Conditions referring to future time are either 
More Vivid or Less Vivid. Thus: 

Present 

Neutral: If it is raining, I stay home. 

Contrary to fact: If it were raining, I would stay at home. 

Past 

Neutral: If it was raining, I stayed at home. 

Contrary to fact: If it had rained, I would have stayed at 
home. 



Future 

More vivid: If it rains, I will stay at home. 

Less vivid: If it should rain, I would stay at home. 

A neutral present or past condition (or conclusion) 
is usually expressed by the Indicative: as, "If it is 
asked why he did it, the answer is easy." Some- 
times, however, the Subjunctive is used in a neu- 
tral present condition: as, "If it be asked why he 
did it, the answer is easy." 

A condition or conclusion contrary to fact is ex- 
pressed by the Subjunctive: as, "If I were you, I 
would not go." 

In conditional clauses the Present Subjunctive 
refers to either present ox future time, and suggests 
doubt. 

The Past Subjunctive refers to present time and 
implies that the supposition is contrary to fact. 

The Past Perfect Subjunctive refers to past time, 
and implies that the supposition was contrary to fact. 



OF VERBS 315 

Note. 1. When "if" is equivalent to "whenever," the 
condition is called general, to distinguish it from particular 
conditions, which refer to some particular act at some par- 
ticular time. General conditions properly take the indica- 
tive: as, "If (i.e., whenever) it rains, I stay at home." 

Note 2. Sometimes there is no "if," and then the verb or a 
part of the verb precedes the subject: as, "Were it raining, I 
should be sorry"; "Had it been raining, I should have been 
sorry." 

Note. 3. Clauses introduced by "though," "although," and 
"unless" take the same forms as clauses introduced by "if." 

Exercise 251 

Tell which of the italicized forms is preferable: 

1. I wish I was {were) a man. 

2. If I was {were) you, I would stay at home. 

3. The train could go faster if it was {were) necessary. 

4. Though a liar speaks {speak) the truth, he will not be 
believed. 

5. Though gold is {be) more precious than iron, it is not 
so useful. 

Exercise 252 

Tell the difference in meaning between the sentences 
in each of the following groups, and tell the Mood of 
each verb: 

1 . {a) If she goes, I will go. (b) If she should go, I would go. 
{c) If she were going, I would go. {d) If she had gone, I would 
go. (e) If she had gone, I would have gone. 

2. {a) If he follows my advice, he will succeed, (b) If he 
followed my advice, he would succeed, (c) Had he followed 



3i6 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

my advice, he would have succeeded, (d) If he should follow 
my advice, he would succeed. 

3. (a) If she speaks French, she does not need an inter- 
preter, (b) If she speaks French, she will not need an inter- 
preter, (c) If she spoke French, she would not need an 
interpreter. 

4. (a) If he is faithful, he will be promoted, (b) If he 
should be faithful, he would be promoted, (c) If he were 
faithful, he would be promoted, (d) If he had been faithful, 
he would have been promoted. 

5. (a) Oh, that he may be truthful! (b) Oh, that he were 
truthful! (c) Oh, that he had been truthful! 

6. (a) Even though it is raining, I will go. (b) Even though 
it rain, I will go. (c) Even though it should rain, I will go. 
(d) Even though it rained, I went, (e) Even though it rains, 
I will go. (/*) Even though it rained, I would go. (g) Even 
though it has rained, I will go. (h) Even though it had 
rained, I would go. (i) Even though it had rained, I would 
have gone. 

VI. PARTICIPLES 

A Participle is a form of the verb that partakes 
of the nature of the adjective (93). 

219. Nature of Participles. Participles are in- 
termediate between verbs and adjectives. They 
express action, being, or state, and take the same 
complements and modifiers as the verbs from which 
they are formed; but they have the constructions 
of adjectives. They differ from verbs in not being 
instruments of assertion; they differ from adjectives 
in having the complements and modifiers of verbs. 
A participle is "a verb in an adjectival aspect." 



OF VERBS 317 

220. Form of the Participles. With regard to 
form, participles are of two principal kinds: 

1. The Present Participle, formed from the root of the 
verb by adding "-ing": as, "The girl reading a book is my 
cousin. " 

2. The Past Participle, usually formed from the root of 
the verb by adding "-ed," "-d," "-t," "-en," or "-n" (196, 
197): as, "The plant called Nightshade is poisoDOus"; 
"The book taken from my desk has been returned." 

A Present Participle describes an action as going 
on at the time denoted by the principal verb in the 
clause or sentence. 

A Past Participle describes an action as past or 
completed at the time denoted by the principal 
verb in the clause or sentence. • 

Exercise 253 

1. Review Exercise 114. 

2. Make a list of the Participles in Exercises 8 
and 15, and tell what each modifies. 

221. Phrasal Participles. With the participles 
of "be" and "have" as auxiliaries we form certain 
Phrasal Participles, active and passive, correspond- 
ing to some tense forms of the indicative : as, 

Active 
Past: "Having written my letters, I went to 

bed." 
Past Progressive: " Having been writing all day, I am tired." 



318 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Passive 

Present: Being written in ink, the name was hard to erase. 
iPast: Having been written hastily, the letter contained 

many mistakes. 

Exercise 254 

Make a list of the Participles in Exercise 16, and 
tell the tense of each. 

Exercise 255 

Write five sentences containing five different Par- 
ticiples. 

222. Construction of Participles. Participles have 
all the ordinary uses of adjectives (167), and the fol- 
lowing special uses in addition: 

1. With Auxiliaries in Verb-Phrases: as, "Mother is 
looking for you"; "He has written a letter." 

2. Attached to a Nominative Absolute (223;: as, "Night 
coming on, we lighted a fire." 

223. Nominative Absolute. Compare the fol- 
lowing sentences: 

(a) When night came on, we lighted a fire. 

(b) Night coming on, we lighted a fire. 

These sentences are alike in meaning, but differ 
in form. In (a) the time of the principal action is 
shown by the subordinate clause, "When night 
came on," in which "night" is the subject of the 



OF VERBS 319 

verb "came." In (b) the connective "when" has 
been dropped and the verb "came" has been changed 
to a participle attached to "night." "Night" is 
thus left without any grammatical connection with 
the rest of the sentence, and is said to be in the 
Nominative Absolute (Latin, "free"). 

Other examples of the nominative absolute are: 

The sea being smooth, we went for a sail. 

Bruce lay down, his heart [being] heavy with sorrow. 

The ceremony [having been] completed, we dispersed. 

Caution. The nominative absolute must not be con- 
founded with constructions in which a participle is loosely 
attached to the subject of a sentence in the appositive rela- 
tion: as, "Hearing a noise in the street, I went to the 
window." 

The participle belonging to a nominative absolute may be 
omitted, but the nominative itself may not; otherwise the 
participle will be left dangling, apparently attached to the 
nearest substantive. For example, in the incorrect sentence, 
"Crossing the ferry, my hat blew off," "crossing" seems to 
be attached to "hat," which is not intended. 

Exercise 256 

Make a list of the Participles in the following sen- 
tences, and tell how each is used: 

1. Hearing a shout, she ran to the door. 

2. We saw a schoolhouse standing by the road. 

3. The fire having gone out, the room grew cold. 

4. The children stood watching them out of the town. 

5. Surrounded by friends, she breathed freely again. 



320 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

6. Deep into that darkness peering, long I stood there 
wondering, fearing. 

7. Un warmed by any sunset light. 
The gray day darkened into night. 

8. Away they dash'd through Temple Bar, 
Their red cloaks flowing free. 

9. Sweet in her green dell the flower of beauty slumbers, 
Lull'd by the faint breezes sighing through her hair. 

10. Close beside her, faintly moaning, fair and young, a 
soldier lay, 
Torn with shot and pierced with lances, bleeding slow 
his life away. 

VII. INFINITIVES 

An Infinitive is a form of the verb that partakes 
of the nature of the noun (94). 

224. Nature of Infinitives. Infinitives are inter- 
mediate between verbs and nouns. They are used, 
not to assert an action, but to name it. They express 
action, being or state, and take the same comple- 
ments and modifiers as the verbs from which they 
are formed; but they have the constructions of 
nouns. They differ from verbs in not being instru- 
ments of assertion; they differ from nouns in having 
the complements and modifiers of verbs. An 
infinitive is a "verb in a substantival aspect. " 

The name "infinitive" means "unlimited," and refers 
to the fact that the action, being, or state expressed by an 
infinitive is usually not limited to a particular subject or 



OF VERBS 321 

time: as, "To climb steep hills requires strength and en- 
durance." 

The indicative, subjunctive, and imperative forms of the 
verb, which are limited to a particular subject and time, 
and take the person and number of their subject, are often 
called Finite ("Hmited") verbs. 

225. Form of Infinitives. With regard to form, 
infinitives are of two principal kinds: 

1. The Root-Infinitive, which always has the same form 
as the root or simple form of the verb: as, "Better wear out 
than rust out"; "You need not wait" 

The root-infinitive is usually called simply the Infinitive. 

2. The Infinitive in -ing, formed from the root of the 
verb by adding "-ing": as, "She understands boiling an egg 
better than anybody else." 

The infinitive in "-ing" is preferably called the Gerund. 
The root-infinitive is often preceded by "to": as, "It is 
better to wear out than to rust out"; "I prefer to wait." 

226. "To" before the Root-Infinitive. Originally 
"to" before the root^innnitive denoted purpose, and 
always had the force of a preposition, as it still has 
in many expressions: as, "Boats to let" (i.e., "for 
letting"); "He came to see us" (i.e., "for seeing''). 

In these sentences "to let" and "to see" are really 
prepositional phrases, used as adjectives or adverbs. 
Other examples are: 

Adjective Phrase: "Bread to eat" (i.e., l( for eating"). 
Adverbial Phrase: "We grieve to hear it" (i.e., at hear- 
ing"); "He is ashamed to beg" (i.e., "of begging"). 

In many other modern expressions "to" before 
the root-infinitive has no other value than to mark 



322 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

the following word as an infinitive: as, "To bear 
our fate is to conquer it." Here "to" resembles an 
inflection, and is called the Sign of the Infinitive. 

"To" as a sign of the infinitive is not used after 
auxiliary verbs, and in many other cases that are 
learned by observation. Examples are: 

(i) "I will go." 

(2) "You dare not do it." 

(3) "She heard him cry." 

(4) "He had better start now." 

Exercise 257 

1. Review Exercise 115. 

2. Make a list of the Infinitives in the following 
sentences: 

1. Day after day the labor's to be done. 

2. Barbara's grandmother taught her to read and write. 

3. The purpose of our army and navy is to preserve 
peace. 

4. To be conscious that you are ignorant is a great step 
toward knowledge. 

5. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, 
and some few to be chewed and digested."" 

6. The secret of life is not to do what one likes to do, 
but to try to like what one has to do. 

7. No man e'er felt the halter draw 
With good opinion of the law. 

8. The time has come, the Walrus said, 
To talk of many things. 



OF VERBS 323 

9. You can never teach either oak or beech 
To be aught but a greenwood tree. 

10. I heard the pulse of the besieging sea 
Throb far away all night. 

Exercise 258 

Make a list of the Gerunds in the following sen- 
tences, and tell the construction of each: 

1. I did not enjoy crossing the ocean. 

2. There should be time for being and knowing as well 
as for doing. 

3. Being in a ship is being in a jail, with the chance of 
being drowned. 

4. Being convinced of one's folly is often a great step 
towards wisdom. 

5. To be prepared for war is one of the most effectual 
means of preserving peace. 

6. The fairest action of our human life 
Is scorning to revenge an injury. 

7. Rest is not quitting the busy career, 
Rest is in fitting one's self to one's sphere. 

8. If eyes were made for seeing, 
Then beauty is its own excuse for being. 

227. Phrasal Infinitives. With the infinitives of 
"be" and "have" as auxiliaries we form certain 
Phrasal Infinitives, active and passive, correspond- 
ing to some tense forms of the indicative : as, 



3 2 4 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Active 
Present Progressive: "I expect to be writing letters." 
Past: "I am sorry to have written so poorly." 

"He was reproved for having written it." 
Past Progressive: "I ought to have been writing my exercise." 
"His arm was cramped from his having 
been writing all morning." 

Passive 

Present: "The exercise must be written" 

"She disliked being called 1 proud." 

Past: "The exercise ought to have been written" 

"She is angry at having been called 1 
proud." 

228. Uses of the Tenses of the Infinitive. A 

Present Infinitive denotes action which is incomplete 
at the time expressed by the principal verb: as, "He 
is trying to write now" ; "He tried to write yesterday" ; 
"He will try to write tomorrow." You observe that 
the infinitive does not change; yet the time referred 
to changes with that of the principal verb. 

A Past Infinitive is properly used to denote 
action which is completed at the time expressed by 
the principal verb: as, "Alfred is said to have drawn 
up a body of laws"; "I felt glad to have seen Niagara 
Falls"; "I shall be glad to have finished my task." 

Exception. "Ought," "must," and "should" (in the 
sense of "ought") have no distinctive form to denote past 
time; and with these verbs distinctions of time are denoted 
by changes in the form of the following infinitive, the pres- 
ent forms denoting present time, and the past forms past 

* Passive infinitives in "-ing" are rare, occurring only with certain verbs. 



OF VERBS 325 

time: as, "You ought to go," "You ought to have gone" ; 
"He should be careful," "He should have been careful." A 
similar use of the infinitive forms to denote time is found 
after "could" and "might" in some of their uses: as, "I 
could go" "I could have gone" ; "You might answer" "You 
might have answered" 

Exercise 259 

Tell which of the italicized forms is right, and give 
the reason. 

1. Lee intended to attack {to have attacked) at daybreak. 

2. We meant to start {to have started) long ago. 

3. It was his business to prevent {to have prevented) such an 
accident. 

4. He is said to lose {to have lost) ten dollars. 

5. It would have been better to wait {to have waited). 

6. He could not Jail {have failed) to arouse {to have aroused) 
suspicion. 

Exercise 260 

Write (1) three sentences containing the Present 
Infinitive; (2) two containing the Past Infinitive 
correctly used. 

229. Constructions of the Infinitive. The infini- 
tive is common in the following constructions: 

1. Subject of a Verb: as, u To find fault is easy"; " Being 
able to play the piano is not knowing music." 

2. Predicate Infinitive: as, "Her greatest pleasure is to 
raise flowers"; "His chief difficulty is learning to spell." 

3. Direct Object: as, "He likes to read history"; "I hate 
traveling alone." 



326 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

4. Secondary Object: as, "His mother taught him to 
read." 

5. Retained Object: as, "He was taught to read and 
write by his mother." 

6. Appositive: as, "He has a fixed purpose; namely, to 
get an education." 

7. With a Preposition: as, "He had no choice but (i. e. 
except) to obey." 

8. Adjectival: as, "Boats to let"; "He is a boy to be 
trusted." 

9. Adverbial: as, "He came to see me"; "This is hard 
to do"; "I was glad to see you." 

10. Infinitive Clause (230): as, "I saw him go"; "We 
heard her cry" ; "I believe him to be honest." 

230. Infinitive Clause. Compare the following 
sentences: 

(a) I think that he is honest. 

(b) I think him to be honest. 

In (a) the object of " think" is the clause "that 
he is honest," in which "he" is the subject of the 
verb "is"; in (b) the object of "think" is, similarly, 
"him to be honest," in which the objective "him" 
has the same relation to the infinitive "to be" that 
the nominative "he," in the corresponding clause, 
has to the verb "is." "Him," therefore, is called 
the Subject of the Infinitive, and "him to be hon- 
est" may be properly called an Infinitive Clause. 

The subject of an infinitive is always in the 
objective case. 



OF VERBS 327 

Other examples are : 

"He ordered me to move on." 

"The teacher saw her go." 

"The colonel commanded the bridge to be burned." 

"He declared them to be counterfeit." 

Exercise 261 

Make a list of the Infinitives in the following sen- 
tences, and tell the construction of each: 

I. 

1. Study to be quiet. 

2. They heard a dog bark. 

3. She stoops to conquer. 

4. Teach me the way to die. 

5. Americans like to travel. 

6. We saw the balloon go up. 

7. Now is our time to learn. 

8. He is a boy to be trusted. 

9. I believe him to be honest. 

10. I was taught to tell the truth. 

11. To neglect exercise is dangerous. 

12. He is as able to work as any one. 

13. His mother told him to bring some water. 

14. England expects every man to do his duty. 

15. Fools who came to scoff remained to pray. 

16. I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him. 

17. Of two evils, the less is always to be chosen. 

18. 'Tis sweet to hear the watchdog's honest bark. 

19. How weak are words to carry thoughts like mine. 

20. His mind was wax to receive and marble to retain. 



328 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

II. 

21. To live in hearts we leave behind us is not to die. 

22. The highest office of history is to preserve ideals. 

23. Seldom has English statesmanship had such a tale to 
tell. 

24. The greatest of faults, I should say, is to be con- 
scious of none. 

25. The only argument available with an east wind is to 
put on your overcoat. 

26. An Englishman is the unfittest person on earth to 
argue another person into slavery. 

27. Under the greenwood tree 
Who loves to lie with me? 

28. I have no spur 
To prick the sides of my intent. 

29. I count life just a stuff 

To try the soul's strength on. 

30. Many loved Truth, and lavished life's best oil 
Amid the dust of books to find her. 

Exercise 262 

Make a list of the Infinitives, Gerunds, and Par- 
ticiples in the following sentences, and tell how each 
is used: 

1. The reward of a thing well done is to have done it. 

2. Irving taught millions of his countrymen to love 
England. 

3. Members were astonished to recognize a broad phi- 
losophy of poetry running through Burke's speeches. 

4. Having been provided with ample means by his fond 
mother, Harry Warrington set out to conquer England. 



OF VERBS 329 

5. I have no more pleasure in hearing a man attempt- 
ing wit and failing than in seeing a man trying to leap over 
a ditch and falling into it. 

6. Having spoken of Longfellow's life, and the wide- 
spread and beautiful influence of his verse, it only remains 
for us to speak briefly of his poetry itself. 

7. After being graduated from Bowdoin College in 1825, 
Hawthorne spent twelve years in Salem, reading, writing 
stories, many of which he burned, and becoming, in his own 
familiar phrase, "the obscurest man of letters in America." 

8. But suffer me to pace 
Round the forbidden place, 
Lingering a minute. 

9. Here I come creeping, creeping everywhere; 

You cannot see me coming, 

Nor hear my low sweet humming. 

10. For memory, dwelling 
On each proud swelling 
Of the belfry, knelling 

Its bold notes free, 
Made the bells of Shandon 
Sound far more grand on 
The pleasant waters 

Of the river Lee. 

Exercise 263 

Write five sentences illustrating different uses of the 
Infinitive; five illustrating uses of the Gerund. 

VIII. Conjugation 

231. Conjugation Denned. It is often conven- 
ient to have the different inflections of the verb 
arranged in regular order. 



33Q THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

The orderly arrangement of the inflections of a 
verb is called Conjugation. 

Definition. Conjugation is the orderly arrange- 
ment of the inflection of verbs. 

232. Conjugation of "Be." The irregular verb 
"be" is conjugated as follows: 



Indicative Mood 


Present 




I am. 


We are. 


You are (Thou art). 


You are. 


He is. 


They are. 


Past 




I was. 


We were. 


You were (Thou wast, or wert). 


You were. 


He was. 


They were. 


Future 




I shall be. 


We shall be. 


You will be (Thou wilt be). 


You will be. 


He will be. 


They will be. 


Present Perfect 




I have been. 


We have been. 


You have been (Thou hast been). 


You have been. 


He has been. 


They have been. 


Past Perfect 




I had been. 


We had been. 


You had been (Thou hadst been). 


You had been. 


He had been. 


They had been. 


Future Perfect 




I shall have been. 


We shall have been 


You will have been 


You will have been. 


(Thou wilt have been). 




He will have been. 


They will have been, 





OF VERBS 






Subjunctive Mood 




(Often preceded by ' 


'if.") 




Present 




I be. 




We be. 


You be (Thou 


be). 


You be. 


Hebe. 


Past 


They be. 


I were. 




We were. 


You were (Thou wert). 


You were. 


He were. 


Present Perfect 


They were. 


I have been. 




We have been. 


You have been (Thou have been). 


You have been. 


He have been. 


Past Perfect 


They have been. 


I had been. 




We had been. 


You had been (Thou had been). 


You had been. 


He had been. 




They had been. 




Imperative Mood 




Present 






Be, do be. 






Infinitives 






Root-Infinitives 




Present 




Past 


(To) be. 


Gerunds 


(To) have been, 


Present 




Past 


Being. 


Participles 


Having been. 


Present 


Past 


Phrasal Past 


Being. 


Been. 


Having been. 



331 



233. Conjugation of "Call." The conjugation of 
the verb "call," which may be taken as a type of all 
regular verbs, is given below. For the sake of 
brevity, only the third person singular is given in 



33- 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



the indicative and subjunctive, since the other forms 
may be easily supplied: 





Active Voice 




Indicative Mood 


Present 


Present Emphatic Present Progressive 


He calls. 


He does call. He is calling. 


Past 


Past Emphatic . Past Progressive 


He called. 


He did call. He was calling. 


Future 


Future Progressive 


He will call. 


He will be calling. 


Present Perfect 


Present Perfect Progressive 


He has called. 


He has been calling. 


Past Perfect 


Past Perfect Progressive 


He had called. 


He had been calling. 


Future Perfect 


Future Perfect Progressive 


He will have called. He will have been calling. 



Present 
He call. 

Past 
He called. 

Present Perfect 
He have called. 

Past Perfect 
He had called 



Subjunctive Mood 

(Often preceded by "if.") 
Present Emphatic Present Progressive 

He do call. He be calling. 



Past Emphatic 
He did call. 



Past Progressive 
He were calling. 

Present Perfect Progressive 
He have been calling 

Past Perfect Progressive 
He had been calling. 







OF VERBS 333 


Present 
Call 


Imperative Mood 

Present Emphatic Present Progressive 
Do call Be calling, do be calling. 


Present 
(To) call. 




Infinitives 

Root-Infinitives 

Present Progressive 

(To) be calling. 


Past 
(To) have called. 


Past Progressive 
(To) have been calling. 


Present 
Calling. 


Gerunds. 
Past Past Progressive 

Having called. Having been calling. 


Present 
Calling. 


Participles 

Past Past Progressive 
Having called. Having been calling. 






Passive Voice 


Present 
He is called. 


Indicative Mood 

Present Progressive 
He is being called. 



Past Past Progressive 

He was called He was being called. 

Future 

He will be called. 

Present Perfect 

He has been called. 

Past Perfect 

He had been called. 

Future Perfect 

He will have been called. 



334 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



Subjunctive Mood 

(Often preceded by "if.") 
Present 

He be called. 



Past 
He were called. 

Present Perfect 
He have been called. 

Past Perfect 
He had been called. 



Past Progressive 
He were being called. 



Present 
Be called 

Present 
(To) be called. 

Present 
Being called. 



Imperative 



Infinitives 



Participles 

Past 
Called. 



Present Emphatic 
Do be called. 

Past 
(To) have been called. 

Phrasal Past 
Having been called. 



234. How to Parse Verbs. To parse a verb, we 
must give its — 

(i) Class: whether transitive or intransitive, regular or 
irregular. 

(2) Principal parts. 

(3) Voice. 

(4) Mood. 

(5) Tense. 

(6) Person. 

(7) Number. 

(8) Construction. 



OF VERBS 335 

Example: The greatest of faults, I should say, is to be 
conscious of none. 

i. Should say is a verb phrase formed with the auxiliary 
" should " from the transitive regular verb " say "; princi- 
pal parts, "say," "said," "said"; active voice; used to 
express ideal certainty (217); first person, singular number, 
agreeing with its subject i". 

2. Is is an intransitive irregular verb; principal parts, 
"am," "was," "been"; active voice, indicative mood, pres- 
ent tense; third person, singular number, agreeing with the 
subject greatest, which is an adjective used substantively. 

3. To be is an intransitive irregular verb; principal parts, 
"am," "was," "been"; active voice, infinitive mood, present 
tense, used as predicate infinitive after is. 

Exercise 264 

Parse the Verbs in the following sentences: 

1. She watches him as a cat would watch a mouse. 

2. What is read twice is commonly better remembered 
than what is transcribed. 

3. A man may write at any time if he will set himself 
doggedly to it. 

4. A falcon, towering in her pride of place, 
Was by a mousing owl hawked at and killed. 

5. Full fathom five thy father lies; 

Of his bones are coral made; 
Those are pearls that were his eyes; 

Nothing of him that doth fade 
But doth suffer a sea-change 
Into something rich and strange. 



336 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Exercise 265 

(For Advanced Pupils.) 

Parse the Verbs in the following sentences: 

i. True ease in writing comes from art, not chance, 
As those move easiest who have learned to dance; 
'Tis not enough no harshness gives offense, — 
The sound must seem an echo to the sense. 

2. Of all the wonders that I yet have heard, 

It seems to me most strange that men should fear; 
Seeing that death, a necessary end, 
Will come when it will come. 

3. Had I but served my God with half the zeal 
I served my king, he would not in mine age 
Have left me naked to mine enemies. 

4. Blandishments will not fascinate us, nor will threats 
of a "halter" intimidate. For, under God, we are determined 
that wheresoever, whensoever, or howsoever we shall be 
called to make our exit, we will die free men. — Josiah Quincy, 
Jr.: "Observations on the Boston Port Bill, 1774." 

5. Yesterday the greatest question was decided which 
ever was debated in America; and a greater perhaps never 
was, nor will be decided among men. A resolution was 
passed without one dissenting colony, that these United 
Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent 
States. — John Adams: Letter to Mrs. Adams, July 3, 1776. 

Exercise 266 

(Review.) 

Parse the Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Adverbs, 
and Verbs in Exercise 256. 



CHAPTER VIII 



OF PREPOSITIONS 

A Preposition is a word used to show the relation 
between a substantive and some other word (86). 

235. Prepositions Classified. The following is 
a list 1 of the prepositions in common use: 



Simple Prepositions 



after 
at 
but 
by 

aboard 

about 

above 

across 

against 

along 

amidst, amid 

among, 

amongst 

around, round 

aslant 



down 
ere 
for 
from 



in 
of 
off 
on 



over 



since 

through 

till 



to 

under 
up 
with 



Derivative 

athwart 

barring 

before 

behind 

below 

beneath 

beside, besides 

between 

betwixt 

beyond 

concerning 



Prepositions 

despite 
during 
excepting, 
except 
into 

notwith- 
standing 
past 
pending 
regarding 
respecting 



saving, save 

touching 

toward, towards 

throughout 

underneath 

until 

unto 

upon 

within 

without 



iTo the Teacher. This list is for reference, not for memorizing. 
The distinction between Simple and Derivative prepositions is not im- 
portant in elementary study, and both kinds may be classified as bim- 
ple, if desired. 

337 



338 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Compound Prepositions 



according to 


by the way of 


in opposition to 


apart from 


for the sake of 


in place of 


as for 


in accordance with 


in preference to 


as regards 


in addition to 


in spite of 


as to 


in case of 


instead of 


because of 


in compliance with 


on account of 


by means of 


in consequence of 


out of 


by reason of 


in front of 

Exercise 267 


with regard to 



Write ten sentences illustrating the use of such 
Prepositions as the teacher may select. 

236. Words with Prepositions. The word or 
group of words used with a preposition to form a 
phrase is in the objective case. It is commonly a 
noun or a pronoun ; but it may be any word or group 
of words used substantively: as, 

(i) Noun: Come into the garden. 

(2) Pronoun: I stood behind him. 

(3) Adverb: I never felt it till now. 

(4) Adjective: Lift up your eyes on high. 

(5) Prepositional phrase: He stepped from behind the tree. 

(6) Infinitive phrase: None knew thee but to love thee. 

(7) Clause: Listen to what I say. 

Exercise 268 

Write five sentences of your own in which the prepo- 
sition is used with(i) a Noun, (2) a Pronoun, (3) an 
Adverb, (4) an Adjective, (5) a Prepositional Phrase. 



OF PREPOSITIONS 339 

237. Prepositional Phrases. A phrase consist- 
ing of a preposition and a substantive is called a 
Prepositional Phrase. 

If the prepositional phrase modifies a noun or a 
pronoun, it is an Adjective Prepositional Phrase : as, 
"The wages of sin is death." If it modifies a verb, 
an adjective,or an adverb,it is an Adverbial Prep- 
ositional Phrase : as, "Man shall not live by bread 
alone" 

Occasionally a prepositional phrase is used substantively: 
as, "Over the fence is out." In such cases there is usually an 
ellipsis of some word which the prepositional phrase modifies. 

Exercise 269 

Write two sentences containing Adjective Preposi- 
tional Phrases; three containing Adverbial Preposi- 
tional Phrases. 

Exercise 270 

(Review.) 

Make a list of the Prepositional Phrases in Exercise 
41, and tell whether they are Adjective or Adverbial. 

238. Position of Prepositions. Ordinarily a 
preposition is placed before its substantive: as, "I 
sprang to the window" Sometimes, however, it is 
put after its substantive: as, "What are we coming 
to?" 

The theory, advanced by some grammarians, that a sen- 
tence should not end with a preposition, is not supported 



34© THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

by the practice of the best writers, as may be seen from 
the following representative quotations: 

"Some little toys that girls are fond of." — Swift. 
"You see what my tricks have brought me to?" — 

Goldsmith. 
"What god doth the wizard pray to?" — Hawthorne. 
"Rather bear those ills we have 
Than fly to others that we know not of." — Shakespeare. 

The following sentences are entirely in accord with the 
best English idiom: 

What are you looking at? What are you thinking of? 
What did you ask for? That is all I came for. 

239. Prepositions Used as Adverbs. Some of the 
simplest prepositions, such as "in" "on," "off," 
"up," "to," were originally adverbs; and in modern 
English many of them are used adverbially. 

i. Sometimes a preposition is used adverbially as an 
inseparable adjunct of the verb: as, "She carried off the prize"; 
"The people laughed at Fulton's steamboat." The adverbial 
force of such prepositions is shown by the fact that they 
stay with the verb when the sentences are changed into the 
passive form: as, "Fulton's steamboat was laughed at by 
the people." From this last sentence it is clear that in the 
former sentence, "The people laughed at Fulton's steam- 
boat," "steamboat" is the object, not of the preposition 
"at," but of the transitive verb "laughed at." 

2. Sometimes a preposition becomes an adverb through the 
omission of its substantive: as, 

It was nothing to joke about. (Omission of "which.") 
That is all I ask for. (Omission of "that.") 



OF PREPOSITIONS 341 

240. Special Use of Some Prepositions. Prepo- 
sitions play a very important part in our language, 
and have many idiomatic uses. Most of these can 
be learned only by observing the custom of good 
speakers and writers. 

The following notes on some special uses of a few 
prepositions may prove helpful: 

At, in: Before names of places to denote "where," at 
is used when the place is viewed as a mere point; in is used 
when the speaker desires to make prominent the idea "within 
the bounds of": as, "He arrived at Liverpool in the morning 
and remained in that city two days." 

Compare to, compare with: We compare one thing to 
another to show similarity: as, "Burke compared the parks 
of a city to the lungs of the body." We compare one thing 
with another to show either similarity or difference, especially 
difference: as, u Compare our comfort with their poverty." 

Confide in, confide to: Confide in means "trust in": as, 
"In thy protection I confide." Confide to means "intrust 
to": as, "He confided the secret to his mother." 

Differ from, differ with: We use differ from when we 
refer to unlikeness between objects; when we refer to dis- 
agreement in opinion we use either differ from or differ with: 
as, "These two books differ entirely from each other" ; "I differ 
from or with the honorable gentleman on that point." 

Different from: According to the best usage the proper 
preposition after "different" and "differently" is from, not 
than: as, "He is very different from his brother." 

Of: Of is often used to denote identity; and then the 
prepositional phrase has the force of an appositive: as, 
"the city of St. Louis," "the State of Ohio," "the island of 
Cuba." 



342 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Wait for, wait on: Wait for means "await": as, "We will 
wait for you at the corner." Wait on means "attend": as, 
"At dinner the women waited on the men." 

Exercise 271 

Fill the following blanks with appropriate Preposi- 
tions: 

i. The king confided his ministers. 

2. We stayed London two weeks the Victoria 

Hotel. 

3. The marriage customs of the Russians are very different 
ours. 



4. He says that he shall be back in an hour; but we cannot 
wait him. 

5. Admiral Dewey remained the Philippines a year 

after his victory Manila Bay. 

6. The conspirators confided the execution of their plot 
the youngest of their number. 

7. We arrived Paris in the evening. that city 

we stayed the Hotel Normandie. 

8. He who compares his own condition that of others 

will find that he has many reasons for thinking himself 
fortunate. 

241. How to Parse Prepositions. To parse a 
preposition one must give: 

(1) Its substantive. 

(2) The construction of the phrase which it introduces. 

Exercise 272 

Parse the prepositions in Exercise 57. 

Model: Down the street come the boys. 

Down is a simple preposition used with the noun street. 
The prepositional phrase is adverbial, modifying the verb 
come. 



CHAPTER IX 

OF CONJUNCTIONS 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or 
groups of words (87). 

Conjunctions must be carefully distinguished from prep- 
ositions and relative pronouns, which are also connecting 
words. A preposition begins a prepositional phrase; a 
relative pronoun stands for a noun with which it connects a 
modifying clause; a conjunction merely connects clauses, 
phrases, or words that have the same grammatical con- 
struction. 

Sometimes a conjunction is used at the beginning of a 
paragraph to connect it with what precedes. 



242. Conjunctions Classified. The following is 
a list of conjunctions in common use: 1 

Simple Conjunctions 



although 


lest 


therefore 


and 


nevertheless 


though 


as 


nor 


unless 


because 


or 


when 


but 


since 


wherefore 


for 


still 


whether 


however 


than 


while 


if 


that 


yet 



VThis list is not intended for memorizing. With regard to the words which are some- 
times conjunctions, sometimes adverbs or prepositions, like "since," "when," "while," 
"until," etc. See Section 90 and footnote. 

343 



344 THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

Compound Conjunctions 

as if as sure as in order that 

as though except that for as much as 

as long as in case that provided that 

as soon as 

According to their use, conjunctions may be 
arranged in two general classes: 

(i) Co-ordinating Conjunctions, which connect words, 
phrases, or co-ordinate clauses: as, "Sink or swim"; "By 
the people and for the people"; "I ran fast, but I missed the 
train." 

(2) Subordinating Conjunctions, which introduce subor- 
dinate clauses: as, "I came because you called me"; "Guy 
is older than Lewis [is]"; "Galileo taught that the earth 
moves"; " Unless it rains, we shall all go." 

243. Correlative Conjunctions. Conjunctions are 
sometimes used in pairs, the first of the pair indi- 
cating that something will presently be added: as, 
"His conduct was neither wise nor just"; "Both 
John and Henry may go with you." Conjunctions 
used in pairs are called Correlative Conjunctions. 

The most common correlative conjunctions are: 
"both — and," "either — or," "neither — nor," "whether 
— or," "not only — but also." 

When conjunctions are used as correlatives, each 
of the correlated words should be so placed as to 
indicate clearly what ideas are to be connected in 
thought. 

This principle is violated in "He not only visited 



OF CONJUNCTIONS 345 

Paris, but Berlin also." In this sentence the position 
of "not only" before the verb "visited' ' leads one to 
expect some corresponding verb in the second part 
of the sentence; but the two connected words are 
"Paris" and "Berlin." "Visited" applies to both. 
This meaning is clearly indicated by putting "not 
only" before "Paris": thus, "He visited not only 
Paris, but Berlin also." 

As a rule, the word after the first correlative 
should be the same part of speech as the word after 
the second correlative. 

Exercise 273 

Write five sentences of your own illustrating the 
correct position of (i) "both — and" (2) "either — or," 
(3) "neither — nor" (4) "whether — or" (5) "not 
only — but also" 



244. How to Parse Conjunctions. To parse a 
conjunction we must tell: 

(1) Its class. 

(2) What it connects. 

Exercise 274 

Review Exercises 104 and 105. 

Exercise 275 

Parse the Conjunctions in Exercises 264 and 265. 



CHAPTER X 

OF INTERJECTIONS 

An Interjection is a word used to express sudden 
or strong feeling, but not forming part of a sen- 
tence (89). 

245. Classification of Interjections. Interjections 
may be arranged in three general classes: 

i. Simple Interjections, which are never anything else than 
interjections: as, "Oh!" "eh!" "hurrah!" "pooh!" "pshaw!" 
"tut!" 

2. Derivative Interjections, which are other parts of speech 
used as interjections: as, "Mercy!" "farewell!" "nonsense!" 

3. Compound Interjections, which are groups of words 
used as single interjections: as, "Goodness gracious!" 

Exercise 276 

Classify the Interjections in Exercise 107. 



346 



LIST OF VERBS 

The forms given in the following list are all supported by 
good usage; but they are not in all cases the only authorized 
forms. For full information on the subject, students must 
have recourse to the best dictionaries. 



Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


abide 


abode 


abode 


alight 


alighted, alit 


alighted, alit 


arise 


arose 


arisen 


am (be) 


was 


been 


awake 


awoke, awaked 


awaked 


bear ("bring forth") 


bore 


born 


bear ("carry") 


bore 


borne 


beat 


beat 


beaten 


begin 


began 


begun 


behold 


beheld 


beheld 


bend 


bent 


bent 


bereave 


bereft, bereaved 


bereft, bereaved 


beseech 


besought 


besought 


bet 


bet 


bet 


bid ("command") 


bade 


bidden 


bid ("offer money") 


bid 


bid 


bind 


bound 


bound 


bite 


bit 


bitten 


bleed 


bled 


bled 


blend 


blent, blended 


blent, blended 


blow 


blew 


blown 


break 


broke 


broken 


breed 


bred 


bred 


bring 


brought 


brought 



347 



348 


LIST OF VERBS 




Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


build 


built 


built 


burst 


burst 


burst 


buy- 


bought 


bought 


cast 


cast 


cast 


catch 


caught 


caught 


chide 


chid 


chidden 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


cleave ("adhere") 


cleaved 


cleaved 


cleave ("split") 


clove, cleft 


cloven, cleft 


cling 


clung 


clung 


come 


came 


come 


cost 


cost 


cost 


creep 


crept 


crept 


cut 


cut 


cut 


deal 


dealt 


dealt 


dig 


dug, digged 


dug, digged 


do 


did 


done 


draw 


drew 


drawn 


dress 


drest, dressed 


drest, dressed 


drink 


drank 


drunk 


drive 


drove 


driven 


dwell 


dwelt 


dwelt 


eat 


ate 


eaten 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


feed 


fed 


fed 


feel 


felt 


felt 


fight 


fought 


fought 


find 


found 


found 


flee 


fled 


fled 


fling 


flung 


flung 


fly 


flew 


flown 


forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


forget 


forgot 


forgotten 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


get 


got 


got 





LIST OF VERBS 




Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


gild 


gilt, gilded 


gilt, gilded 


give 


gave 


given 


go 


went 


gone 


grind 


ground 


ground 


grow 


grew 


grown 


hang 


hung, hanged 1 


hung, hanged 1 


have 


had 


had 


hear 


heard 


heard 


heave 


hove, heaved 1 


hove*, heaved 


hew 


hewed 


hewn 


hide 


hid 


hidden 


hit 


hit 


hit 


hold 


held 


held 


hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


keep 


kept 


kept 


kneel 


knelt, kneeled 


knelt, kneeled 


knit 


knit, knitted 


knit, knitted 


know 


knew 


known 


lade 


laded 


laded, laden 


lay 


laid 


laid 


lead 


led 


led 


leave 


left 


left 


lend 


lent 


lent 


let 


let 


let 


lie ("recline") 


lay 


lain 


lie ("tell a falsehood 


") lied 


lied 


light 


lighted, lit 


lighted, lit 


lose 


lost 


lost 


make 


made 


made 


mean 


meant 


meant 


meet 


met 


met 


pay 


paid 


paid 


put 


put 


put 


quit 


quit, quitted 


quit, quitted 



349 



i" Hanged" is used only of execution by hanging. 

2"She heaved a sigh." "The crew hove the cargo overboard.'! 



35° 


LIST OF 


VERBS 




Present 


Past 




Past Participle 


read 


read 




read 


rend 


rent 




rent 


rid 


rid 




rid 


ride 


rode 




ridden 


ring 


rang 




rung 


rise 


rose 




risen 


rive 


rived 




riven, rived 


run 


ran 




run 


say- 


said 




said 


see 


saw 




seen 


seek 


sought 




sought 


seethe (intransitive) 


seethed 




seethed 


seethe (transitive) 


seethed, 


sod 


seethed, sodden 


sell 


sold 




sold 


send 


sent 




sent 


set 


set 




set 


shake 


shook 




shaken 


shed 


shed 




shed 


shine 


shone 




shone 


shoe 


shod 




shod 


shoot 


shot 




shot 


show 


showed 




shown 


shred 


shred, shredded 


shred, shredded 


shrink 


shrank 




shrunk 


shrive 


shrove, i 


shrived 


shriven, shrived 


shut 


shut 




shut 


sing 


sang 




sung 


sink 


sank 




sunk 


sit 


sat 




sat 


slay 


slew 




slain 


sleep 


slept 




slept 


slide 


slid 




slidden, slid 


sling 


slung 




slung 


slink 


slunk 




slunk 


slit 


slit 




slit 


smell 


smelt, smelled 


smelt, smelled 





LIST OF VERBS 




Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


smite 


smote 


smitten 


sow 


sowed 


sowed, sown 


speak 


spoke 


spoken 


speed 


sped 


sped 


spell 


spelt, spelled 


spelt, spelled 


spend 


spent 


spent 


spill 


spilled, spilt 


spilled, spilt 


spin 


spun 


spun 


spit 


spit 


spit 


split 


split 


split 


spoil 


spoiled, spoilt 


spoiled, spoilt 


spread 


spread 


spread 


spring 


sprang 


sprung 


stand 


stood 


stood 


stave 


stove, staved 


stove, staved 


stay- 


stayed, staid 


stayed, staid 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


stick 


stuck 


stuck 


sting 


stung 


stung 


stink 


stunk 


stunk 


strew 


strewed 


strewn 


stride 


strode 


stridden 


strike 


struck 


struck, stricken 


string 


strung 


strung 


strive 


strove 


striven 


swear 


swore 


sworn 


sweep 


swept 


swept 


swell 


swelled 


swelled, swollen 


swim 


swam 


swum 


swing 


swung 


swung 


take 


took 


taken 


teach 


taught 


taught 


tear 


tore 


torn 


tell 


told 


told 


think 


thought 


thought 


thrive 


throve, thrived 


thriven, thrived 



351 



352 


LIST OF VERBS 




Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


throw 


threw 


thrown 


thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


tread 


trod 


trodden 


wake 


woke, waked 


woke, waked 


wear 


wore 


worn 


weave 


wove 


woven 


weep 


wept 


wept 


wet 


wet 


wet 


win 


won 


won 


wind 


wound 


wound 


wring 


wrung 


wrung 


write 


wrote 


written 



